The Works of Philo (complete)

But since intoxication does not only display folly, which is the child of ignorance, but also utter insensibility ; and since, again, wine is the cause of that insensibility which affects the body, while the cause of the insensibiUty of the soul is the ignorance of those things with which it is proper and natural to be acquainted ; we must now say a few words about ignorance, reminding the reader of only the most important particulars relating to it. To which, then, of the passions which affect the body shall we compare that passion in the soul which is called ignorance ? To the deprivation of the organs of the external senses ? Therefore all those, who have been injured in their eyes or ears, are no longer able to see or hear at all, but have no acquaintance with day or light, which are the only objects for the sake of which, if we are to tell the plain truth, life is really desirable, but dwell in lasting darkness and everlasting night, being made insensible to everything whether of small or great importance ; men whom ordinary conversation naturally is accustomed to call infirm.

For even if all the other faculties of the rest of the body, should attain to the very extreme limit of strength and vigour, still, if they are tripped up, as it were, and deprived of their foundation by the deprivation of the eyes and ears, they will meet with a great fall, so as never again to be able to rise ; for the things which support man and keep him erect are in name, indeed, the feet, but in reality the powers of hearing and seeing ; and the man who possesses them in their complete integrity is awake and stands upright, but he who is deprived of them falls and will be utterly destroyed. And ignorance does produce completely similar effects on the soul, depriving it of its faculties of seeing and of hearing, and allowing neither light nor reason to enter into it, lest the one should instruct it and the other should exhibit the truth to it. But shedding upon it dense darkness and abundant folly, it renders the most beautiful soul a deaf, and dumb, and lifeless stone. XXXIX.

Eor knowledge, which is the opposite of ignorance, may be called, in a manner, the eyes and ears of the soul ; for it applies the mind to what is said, and fixes its eyes upon things as they exist, and cannot endure to form a false judgment of anything which it either sees or hears. But it examines and carefully surveys every object which is worthy of being seen or heard, and even if it be necessary to sail or to travel over sea and land, it will traverse them to its furthest boundaries that it may see anything more important, or hear anything more modern ; for the love of knowledge admits of no hesitation or delay, it is an enemy to sleep and a friend to waking. Therefore, continually rousing up, and awakening, and sharpening the intellect, it compels it to roam about in every direction, where instruction is to be obtained, inspiring it with an avidity for hearing, and infusing into it an insatiable thirst for learning. Therefore knowledge causes hearing and seeing, by means of which faculties success and rectitude of conduct are arrived at ; for he who sees and hears, knowing what is expedient, chooses that, and rejecting the contrary is benefited by his knowledge.

But ignorance causes to the soul a mutilation more grievous than the mutilation of the body, and is the cause of many errors, since it is unable to derive any assistance from without, either by foreseeing anything, or by any acuteness of hearing. Therefore, owing to its exceeding desolateness of condition, it is left utterly undefended and unprotected, and is exposed to the plots of all kinds of men and to dangers from all kinds of events. Let us, then, never drink unmixed wine in such quantities as to cause insensibility to our outward senses, nor let us alienate ourselves to such a degree from knowledge as to diffuse ignorance, that vast and dense darkness, over our souls. XL. But there are two kinds of ignorance, one simple, being complete insensibility ; and the other of a twofold nature, when a man is not only enveloped in ignorance, but also thinks that he knows what he never has known, being elated with an ungrounded opinion of his knowledge. The former evil is the lighter one, for it is the cause of lighter offences, and of what we may perhaps call involuntary errors ; but the second is of more importance, for it is the parent of great evils, and not only of unintentional but also of deliberate offences.

These are the offences of which Lot, the the father of daughters, appears to me to be especially guilty, not being able to nourish a masculine and perfect plant in his soul ; for he had two daughters by his wife, who was afterwards turned to stone, whom, using an appropriate appellation, one may call habit, a nature at variance with truth, and always, whenever any one tries to lead it on, lagging behind and looking round upon its ancient and customary ways, and remaining in the midst of them like a lifeless pillar. Of these daughters of his the elder may be called Counsel, and the younger may be named Assent, for assent follows upon taking counsel ; but no one after he has assented stUl takes counsel. Accordingly the mind, when it has taken its seat in its council chamber, begins to put its daughters in motion ; and with the elder one, namely. Counsel, it begins to consider and investigate everything ; and with the younger one, Assent, it begins easily to assent to the circumstances that arise, and to embrace what is hostile as though it were friendly, if they only present ever so slight an attraction of pleasure from this source.

But sober reasoning does not admit these things, but only that reasoning does so which is overcome with wine, and, as it were, drunk. XLI.

On which account it is said, "They made their father drink wine."* That is to say, they brought complete insensibility on the mind, so that it fancied itself competent by its owu abilities to judge what was expedient, and to assent to all sorts of apparent facts, as if they really had solid truth in them ; human nature being by no means and under no circumstances competent either to ascertain the truth by consideration, or to choose real truth and advantage, or to reject what is false and the cause of injury ; for the great darkness which is spread over all existing bodies and things does not permit one to see the real nature of each thing, but even if any one, under the influence of immoderate curiosity or of a real love of learning, wishes to emerge from ignorance and to obtain a closer view, he, like people whoUy deprived of sight, stumbling over what is before his feet, will fall, and so get behind hand before he can lay hold of anything ; or else, snatching at something with his hands, he will make uncertain guesses, having only conjecture in the place of truth.

For even if education, holding a torch to the mind, conducts it on his way, kindling its own peculiar light, it would still, with reference to the perception of existing things, do harm rather than good ; for a slight light is naturally liable to be extinguished by dense darkness, and when the light is extinguished all power of seeing is useless. Accordingly we must, on these accounts, remind the man who gives himself airs by reason of his power of deliberating, or of wisely choosing one kind of objects and avoiding others, that if the same unalterable perceptions of the same things always occurred to us, it might perhaps be requisite to admire the two facidties of judging which are implanted in us by nature, namely, the outward senses and the intellect, as unerring and incorruptible, and never to doubt or hesitate about anything, but trusting in every first appearance to choose one kind of thing and to reject the contrary kind. But since we are found to be influenced in difterent manners by the same things at diff"erent times, we should have nothing positive to assert about anything, inasmuch as what appears has no settled or stationary existence, but is subject to various, and multiform, and ever-recurring changes. XLII.

For it follows of necessity, since the imagination is unstable, that the judgment formed by it must be unstable likewise ; and there are many reasons for this. In the first place, the differences which exist 'in animals are not in one particular only, but are unspeakable in point of number, extending through every part, having reference both to their creation and to the way in which they are furnished with their different faculties, and to their way of being supported and thenhabits, and to the manner in which they choose and avoid different things, and to the energies and motions of the outward senses, and to the peculiar properties of the endless passions affecting both the soul and body.

Tor without mentioning those animals which have the faculty of judgment, consider also some of those which are the objects of judgment, such as the chameleon and the polypus ; for they say that the former of these animals changes his complexion so as to resemble the soils over which he is accustomed to creep, and that the other is like the rocks of the sea-shore to which it clings, nature herself, perhaps, being their saviour, and endowing them with a quality to protect them from being caught, namely, with that of changing to all kinds of complexions, as a defence against evil. Again, have you never perceived the neck of the dove changing colour so as to assume a countless variety of hues in the rays of the sun ? is it not by turns red, and purple and fiery coloured, and cinereous, and again pale, and ruddy, and every other variety of colour, the very names of which it is not easy to enumerate ?

They say indeed that among the Scythians, among that tribe which is called the Geloni, most marvellous things happen, rarely indeed, but nevertheless it does happen ; namely that there is a beast seen which is called the tarandus, not much less than an ox in size, and exceedingly like a stag in the character of his face. The story goes that this animal continually changes his coat according to the place in whicli he is, or the trees which he is near, and that in short he always resembles whatever he is near, so that through the similarity of his colour he escapes the notice of those who fall in with him, and that it is owing to this, rather than to any vigour of body, that he is hard to catch. Now these facts and others which resemble them are visible proofs of our inability to comprehend everything. XLIII. In the next place, not only are there all these variations with respect to animals, but there are also innumerable changes and varieties in men, and great differences between one man and another.

For not only do they form different opinions respecting the same things at different times, but different men also judge in different manners, some looking on things as pleasures, which others on the contrary regard as annoyances. For the things with which some persons are sometimes vexed, others delight in, and on the contrary the things, which some persons are eager to acquire and look upon as pleasant and suitable, those very same things others reject and drive to a distance as unsuitable and ill-omened. At all events I have before now often seen in the theatre, when I have been there, some persons influenced by a melody of those who were exhibiting on the stage, whether dramatists or musicians, as to be excited and to join in the music, uttering encomiums without intending it ; and I have seen others at the same time so unmoved that you would think there was not the least difl'erence between them and the inanimate seats on which they were sitting ; and others again so disgusted that they have even gone away and quitted the spectacle, stopping their ears with their hands, lest some atom of a sound being left behind and still sounding in them should inflict annoyance on their morose and unpleasable souls.

And yet why do I say this ? Every single individual among us (which is the most surprising thing of all) is subject to infinite changes and variations both in body and soul, and sometimes chooses and sometimes rejects things which are subject to no changes themselves, but which by their intrinsic nature do always remain in the same condition. Por the same fancies do not strike the same men when they are well and when they are ill, nor when they are awake and when they are asleep, nor when they are young and when they are old. And a man who is standing still often conceives different ideas from those which he entertains when he is in motion ; and also when he is courageous, or when he is alarmed ; again when he is grieved, or when he is delighted, and when he is in love, he feels diflierently from what he does when he is full of hatred. And why need I be prolix and keep dwelling on these points ?

For in short every motion of both body and soul, whether in accordance with nature or in opposition to nature, is the cause of a great variation and change respecting the appearances which present themselves to us ; from which all sorts of inconsistent and opposite dreams arise to occupy our minds. XLIV. And that is not the least influential cause of the instability of one's perceptions which arises from the position of the objects, from their distance, and from the places by which they are each of them surrounded. Do we not see that the fishes in the sea, when they stretch out their fins and swim about, do always appear larger than their real natural size? And oars too, even though they are very straight, look as if they were broken when they are under water ; and things at a great distance display false appearances to our eyes, and in this way do frequently deceive the mind.

For at times inanimate objects have been imagined to be alive, and on the contrary living animals have been considered to be lifeless ; sometimes again stationary things appear to be in motion, and things in motion appear to be standing still : even things which are approaching towards us do sometimes appear to be retreating from us, and things which are going away do on the other hand appear to be approaching. At times very short things seem to be exceedingly long, and things which have many angles appear to be circular. There is also an infinite number of other things of which a false impression is given though they are open to the sight, which however no man in his senses would subscribe to as certain. XLV. What again are we to say of the quantities occurring in things compounded ? For it is through the admixture of a greater or a lesser quantity that great injury or good is often done, as in many other instances, so most especially in the case of medicines compounded by medical science. For quantity in such compounds is measured by fixed limits and rules, and it is not safe either to stop short before one has reached them, nor to advance beyond them.

For if too little be applied, it relaxes, and if too much, it strains the natural powers; and each extremity is mischievous, the one from its impotence being capable of producing any effect at all, and the other by reason of its exceeding strength being necessarily hurtful. Again it is very plain with reference to smoothness, and roughness, and thickness, and close compression, or on the other hand leanness and slackness, how very much influence all these differences have in respect of doing good or harm. Nor indeed is any one ignorant that scarcely anything whatever of existing things, if you consider it in itself and by itself, is accurately understood; but by comparing it with its opposite, then we arrive at a knowledge of its true nature. As for instance, we comprehend what is meant by little by placing it in juxta-position with what is great ; we understand what dry is by comparing it with wet, cold by comparing it with heat, light by comparing it with heavy, black by contrasting it with white, weak by contrasting it with strong, and few by comparing it with many.

In the same way also, in whatever is referred to virtue or to vice, what is advantageous is recognised by a comparison with what is injvirious, what is beautiful by a comparison 49i2 PHILO JUD^US. with what is unseemly, what is just and generally good, by placing it in juxta-position with what is unjust and bad. And, indeed, if any one considers everything that there is in the world, he will be able to arrive at a proper estimate of its character, by taking it in the same manner ; for each separate thing is by itself incomprehensible, but by a comparison with another thing, it easy to understand it. Now, that which is unable to bear witness to itself, but which stands in need of the advocacy of something else, is not to be trusted or thought steady. So that in this AA'ay those men are convicted who say that they have no difficulty in assenting to or denying propositions about anything. And why need we wonder ? For any one who advances far into matters, and who contemplates them in an unmixed state will know this, that nothing is ever presented to our view according to its real plain nature, but that everything has the most various possible mixtures and combinations. XLVI.

Some one will say, We at once comprehend colours. How so ? Do we not do so by means of the external things, air and light, and also by the moisture which exists in our eyes themselves ? And in what way are sweet and bitter comprehended ? Is it apart from the moisture in our mouths ? And as to all the flavours which are in accordance with, or at variance with nature, are not they in the same case ? "What, again, are we to say of the smells arising from perfumes which are burnt ? Do they exhibit plain unmixed simple natures, or rather qualities compounded of themselves and of the air, and sometimes also of the fire which consumes their bodies, and also of the faculty existing in our own nostrils ? From all this we collect the inference that we have neither any proper comprehension of colours, not only of the combination which consists of the objects submitted to our view and of light ; nor of smells, but only of the mixture which consists of that which flows from substances and the all-receiving air ; nor of tastes, but only of the union which arises from the tasteable object presented to us, and the moist substance in our mouths. XLVII.

Since, then, this is the state of affairs with respect to these matters, it is worth while to appreciate correctly the simplicity, or rashness, or impudence of those who pretend to be able with ease to form an opinion, so as to assent to or deny what is stated with respect to anything whatever. For if the simple faculties are Avanting, but the mingled powers and those which are formed by contributions from many sources are within sight, and if it is impossible for those which are invisible to be seen, and if we are unable to comprehend separately the character of all the component parts which are united to make up each faculty, then what remains except that we must think it necessary to suspend our judgment ? And then, too, do not those facts which are diffused over nearly the -nhole world, and which have caused both to Greeks and barbarians such erroneous judgments, exhort us not to be too ready in giving our credence to what is not seen ? And what are these facts ?

Surely they are the instructions which we have received from our childhood, and our national customs and ancient laws, of which it is admitted that there is not a single one which is of equal force among all people ; but it is notorious that they vary according to the different countries, and nations, and cities, aye, and even still more, in every village and private house, and even with respect to men, and women, and infant children, in almost every point. At all events, what are accounted disgraceful actions among us, are by others looked upon as honourable ; what we think becoming, others call unseemly; what we pronounce just, others renounce as iniquitous ; others think our holy actions impious, our lawful deeds lawless : and further, what we think praiseworthy, they find fault with ; what we think worthy of all honour, is, in the eyes of others, deserving of punishment ; and, in fact, they think most things to be of a contrary character to what we think. And why need I be prolix and dwell further on this subject, when I am called off" by other more important points ?

If then, any one, leaving out of the question all other more remarkable subjects of speculation, were to choose to devote his time to an investigation of the subject here proposed, namely, to examine the education, and customs, and laws of every different nation, and country, and place, and city ; of all subjects and rulers ; of all men, whether renowned or inglorious, whether free or slaves, whether ignorant or endowed with knowledge, he would spend not one day or two, nor a montli, nor even a year, but his whole life, even though he were to reach a great age, in the investigation ; and he would nevertheless still leave a vast number of subjects unexamined, uninvestigated, and unmentioned, without perceiving it. Therefore, since there are some persons and things removed from other persons and things, not by a short distance only, but since they are utterly different, it then follows of necessity that the perceptions which occur to men of different things must also differ, and that their opinions must be at variance with one another. XL VIII. And since this is the case, who is so foolish and ridiculous as to affirm positively that such and such a thing is just, or wise, or honourable, or expedient ?

Eor whatever this man defines as such, some one else, who from his childhood, has learnt a contrary lesson, will be sure to den3^ But I am not surprised if a confused and mixed multitude, being the inglorious slave of customs and laws, however introduced and established, accustomed from its very cradle to obev them as if they were masters and tyrants, having their souls beaten and buffeted, as it were, and utterly unable to conceive any lofty or magnanimous thoughts, believes at once every tradition which is presented to it, and leaving its mind without any proper training, assents to and denies propositions without examination and without deliberation. But even if the multitude of those who are called philosophers, pretending that they are really seeking for certainty and accuracy in things, being divided into ranks and companies, come to discordant, and often even to diametrically opposite decisions, and that too, not about some one accidental matter, but about almost everything, whether great or small, with respect to which any discussion can arise.

For when some persons affirm that the world is infinite, while others pronounce it to be confined within limits ; or while some look upon the world as uncreated, and others assert that it is created ; or when some persons look upon it as destitute of any ruler and superintendent, attributing to it a motion, deprived of reason, and proceeding on some independent internal impulse, while others think that there is a care of and providence, which looks over the whole and its parts of marvellous power and -wisdom, Grod ruling and governing the whole, in a manner free from all stumbling, and full of protection. How is it possible for any one to afBrm that the comprehension of such objects as are brought before them, is the same in all men ? And again, the imaginations which are occupied with the consideration of what is good, are not they compelled to suspend their judgment rather than to agree ? While some think that it is only what is good that is beautiful, and treasure that up in the soul, and others divide it into numbers of minute particles, and extend it as far as the body and external circumstances.

These men affirm that such pieces of prosperity as are granted by fortune, are the body-guards of the body, namely strength and good health, and that the integrity and sound condition of the organs of the external senses, and all things of that kind, are the guards of that princess, the soul ; for since the nature of good is divided according to three divisions, the third and outermost is the champion and defender of the second and yielding one, and the second in its turn is a great bulwark and protection to the first; and about these very things, and about the different ways of life, and about the ends to which all actions ought to be referred, and about ten thousand other things which logical, and moral, and natural philosophy comprehends, there have been an unspeakable number of discussions, as to which, up to the present time, there is no agreement whatever among all these philosophers who have examined into such subject. XLIX. Is it not then strictly in accordance with nature that while its two daughters. Counsel and Assent, were agreed together, and sleeping together, the mind is introduced as embarrassed by an ignorance of all knowledge ? for we read in the scripture, "

They knew not when they lay down, or when they rose up."* For it was not likely that in his state he could clearly and distinctly comprehend either sleep or waking, or a stationary position or motion ; but when he appears to have come to an opinion in the best manner, then above all other times is he found to be most foolish, since his affairs then come to an end, by no means resembling that which was expected ; and whenever he has decided on assenting to some things as true, then lie incurs a reproach and condemnation for his facility in adopting opinions, those things which he previously believed as most certain now appearing untrustworthy and uncertain ; so that, as matters are in the habit of turning out contrary to what was expected, the safest course appears to be to suspend one's judgment. L. Having now discussed these matters sufficiently, let us turn to what follows the points already examined. We said, then, that under the name of drunkenness was signified that covetousness and greediness, which has often greatly injured many persons, and the votaries of which one may see, even though they may be amply tilled in all the channels of their bodies, still unsatisfied and empty as to their desires.

These men, if, being distended by the abundance of the things which they have devoured, they nevertheless get breath again for a short time, like wrestlers who are tired, soon descend again to the same contest. Moreover, the king of the Egyptian country, that is of the body, appearing to the minister of drunkenness, his cupbearer, to be angry with him ; again at no great distance of time is represented in the sacred scriptures as reconciled to him remembering that passion which breaks down the appetites in the day of his perishable creation, not in the imperishable light of the uncreated luminary; for it is said that it was Pharaoh's birth-day,* when he sent for the chief butler out of his prison, that he might appear at his banquet; for it is a peculiar characteristic of the man who is devoted to the passions, to think created and perishable things beautiful, because he is enveloped in night and dense darkness, as to the knowledge of imperishable things. On which account he embraces drunkenness as the beffianing: of all pleasures, and its minister the cup-bearer. LI.

Now there are three companions of and servants of the intemperate and incontinent soul, the chief baker, the chief cook, and the chief butler, whom the admirable Moses mentions in these words, "And Pharoah was angry with the two eunuchs, with the chief butler, and with the chief baker, and he put them in prison with the chief cook ;" and the chief cook is eunuch ; for he says in another place, • Genesis xl. 20. " " And Josepli was brought down to Egypt, and a eunuch became his master, Pharaoh's chief cook,"* and again, they sold Joseph to Pharaoh's eunuch, the chief cook ; t and why is it that the aforesaid offices are absolutely committed to one who is neither man nor woman? Is it because men are by nature calculated to sow seed, and woman to receive it, and that the meeting of the two together is the cause of the generation, and also of the duration of all animals ?

But it belongs to an unproductive and barren soil, or one may rather say to one which has been made a eunuch, to delight in costly meats and drinks, and in superfluous extravagant preparations of delicacies, since it is unable in reality either to scatter the masculine seeds of virtue, or to receive and nourish them after they have been shed upon it ; but, like a rough and stony field, only to destroy those things which ought to have lived for ever. And it is laid down as a doctrine of the most general applicability and usefulness, that every author of, pleasure is unproductive of wisdom, being neither male nor female, because it is incompetent either to give or to receive the seeds which have a tendency to incorruptibility, but is able only to study the most disgraceful habits of life, to destroy what ought to be indestructible, and to extinguish the torches of wisdom, which ought to be enduring and inextinguishable. None of such persons does Moses permit to come into the assembly of Grod ; for he says that, " A man who is bruised or castrated shall not enter into the assembly of the Lord." J LII.

For what advantage is there, from the hearing of the sacred scriptures, to a man who is destitute of wisdom, whose faith has been eradicated, and who is unable to preserve that deposit of doctrines most advantageous to all human life ? Now, there are three persons who contribute to the conviviality of the human race, — the chief baker, the cup-bearer, and the maker of delicacies: very naturally, since we desire the use and enjoyment of three things — meat, confections, and drink. But some men only desire that indispensable food which we use of necessity for the • Genesis xxxix. 1. f Genesis xxxvii. 36. J Deut. xxiii. 1. sake of our health, and in order to avoid living in an illiberal manner. Others again desire immoderate and exceedingly extravagant luxuries, which, breaking through the appetites, and weighingjdown,and overwhelming the channels of the body by their number, usually become the parents of all sorts of terrible diseases. Those, therefore, who are inexperienced in pleasure and the indulgence of the appetites and diseases, like the common people in cities, living a life free alike from hatred and from annoyances, as frugal people, have no need of all kinds of various ministers of refined skill, being contented with ordinary cooks, and cup-bearers, and confectioners.

But they who think that the most important and royal object of life is to live pleasantly, and who refer everything, whether of great or small importance, to this object, desire to avail themselves of the services of chief cooks and chief cupbearers, and chief confectioners, that is to say, of men possessed of the highest degree of skill in the arts which they profess. For those who are skilful in the making of confections and luxuries invent the most various possible kinds of cheese-cakes, and honey cakes, and of innumerable other sweetmeats, varying from one another, not merely in the difference of their material, but also in the manner in which they are made, and in their shape, in such a way as not only to please the taste, but also to beguile the eye. And again, the contrivances displayed in the examination of different kinds of wine to produce some, the effect of which sliall speedily go off, and which shall not produce headache, but, on the contrary, shall be devoid of any tendency to heat the blood, and shall be very fragrant, admitting either a copious or a scanty admixture with water, according as the object is to have a strong and powerful di'aught, or a gentle and imperceptible one.

And all the other devices and inventions of cup-bearers all come to the same end of art. And to cook up and prepare fish, and birds, and similar viands, in every variety of manner, and to make all other kinds of sweetmeats and delicacies, we have plausible confectioners of exceeding skill; and there are thousands of other luxuries which they are clever at contriving, besides those which they have heard of or seen made by others, having devised them themselves out of their continued care and attention s to the object of making lii'e luxurious, and effeminate, and not worth living. LIII. But all these men have been novr spoken of as eunuchs, being utterly barren of wisdom.

But the mind, with which the king of the beUy makes a treaty and agreement, was the cup-bearer ; for by its own nature, the human race is verv fond of wine, and this is the sole thing of which it is immeasurably insatiable, since there is no one who is impossible to be satisfied with sleep, and eating, and carnal enjoyments, and things like these ; but nearly every one is insatiablv fond of wine, and especially those who are occupied with serious business ; for after they have drunk they are still thirsty, and they begin drinking at first out of small cups, then, as they proceed, they tell their servants to bring them wine in larger goblets, and when they are pretty fuU and getting riotous, being no longer able to restrain themselves, they take bowls and goblets of all the largest sizes that they can get, and chunk the wine unmixed in huge draughts, until they are either overcome by deep sleep, being no longer able to govern themselves, or till what they have poured into themselves is vomited out again through repletion. But even then, nevertheless, the insatiable desire which exists within them continues to rage as though it were still under the influence of hunger. "

For their wine is of the vine of Sodom," as Moses says, " and their tendrils are from Gomorrah ; their grapes are grapes of gall, and their branches are bitter branches. The rage of dragons is thenwine, and the incurable fury of serpents." * The interpretation of the name Sodom is " barrenness and blindness." But Moses here compares those who are the slaves of greediness for wine and general gluttony, and of other most disgraceful pleasures to a vine, and to the different products of the vine ; and the enigmatical meaning which he conceals under this allegory is this : — There is no plant of true joy naturally implanted in the soul of the bad man ; inasmuch as it has no healthy roots, but only such as are burnt and reduced to ashes, since, instead of water. Heaven has poured upon it the fire of lightning which cannot be quenched, God having adjudged that as fitting punishment for the impious. But there is implanted in it the plant of excessive desire, barren of all good things, and destitute of anything deserving of regard or contemplation, which he here compares to a vine.

Not meaning that one which is the parent of eatable fruit, but that one which produces bitterness, and wickedness, and ungodly cunning ; and Avhich is most fertile in anger, and fury, and the most savage dispositions ; biting the soul like an asp or a viper, inflicting envenomed wounds, utterly incurable. For which wounds, however, we pray that a relief may be found by propitiating the all-merciful Grod, in order that he may destroy this wild vine, and may condemn the eunuchs and all persons who are barren of virtue to everlasting punishment ; and that, instead of them he may implant in our souls the valuable trees of right instruction, and may bestow upon us noble and masculiue reason as its fruit, such as is able to bear within it good actions by way of seed, and is able to increase the virtues, and is calculated to maintain and preserve for ever the entire connection and system of happiness.

Having examined in the preceding treatise what has been said by the lawgiver about wine and the nakedness which attends upon it, we will now begin to connect the the following essay with the statements advanced in that work. Now in the sacred scriptures we come to the following words immediately after the account we have just been examining, " And Noah awoke from his wine, and knew all that his younger son had done to him. "* Sobriety is confessed to be a most advantageous thing, not only for soids but also for bodies, for it drives away the diseases whiclvarise from immoderate repletion, and it sharpens the outward senses to an exceeding degree of acuteness, and it altogether prevents bodies from being weighed down so as to fall, but keeps tbem light, and raises them up, and incites them to the exercise of their appropriate energies, implanting in every part a promptness and vigour ; and in short, sobriety is the cause of exactly as many good things, as drunkenness, on the contrary, is of evils.

Since then sobriety is most advantageous to those bodies to which the drinking of wine is naturally suitable, is it not much more so to souls, with which all perishable food is inconsistent ; for what thing in human nature can be more noble than a sober mind ? what glory can be more glorious ? what wealth can be more rich ? what authority more powerful ? what strength more vigorous ? of all admirable things what can be more admirable? Let there only be the eye of the soul fit to act, which is able to penetrate every where and to open every thing, being in no part hindered or dimmed by the suffusion of its own moisture ; for being then most exceedingly sharpsighted as to its comprehension, and looking into wisdom itself, it will meet with images such as are intelligible only by the intellect, the contemplation of which attracts the soul and will not suffer it any longer to turn aside to the objects which belong to the outward senses.

And why should we wonder if there is no created thing equal in honour to a man who is sober in his soul, and gifted with acute vision ? for the eyes of the body and the light which is appreciable by the outward senses are honoured in an excessive degree by all of us. Accordingly, many who have lost their sight, have voluntarily also thrown away life, thinking as far as they were concerned, that death itself w^as a lighter evil than such deprivation. In proportion then as the soul is superior to the body, in the same proportion also is the mind better than the eyes ; and the mind while it is free from injury and imperfection, not being oppressed by any of the iniquities or passions which are produced by insane drunkenness, renounces sleep as a thing which causes forgetfulness and hesitation in what is to be done ; but it embraces wakefulness, and uses .acuteness of vision, with respect to every object worthy of being beheld, being kept awake by exceedingly perfect memory, and committing actions which are in accordance with the knowledge that it acquires.

Such then is the condition of the sober man ; but when Moses speaks of Noah's "youuger son," he is not so much meaning to make a statement respecting his age, as to show the disposition with which those persons are endued who are inclined to innovation ; since how could he have forced himself to see, what ought not to be seen, in defiance of all law and justice, or to divulge what ought to have been concealed in silence, or to bring to light what might have been kept in the shade at home, and to transgress all the boundaries which should confine the soul, if he had not been eager for change and innovation, laughing at what happens to others when he ought rather to lament over such accidents, and not to ridicule things which it was more natural and decent and proper to grieve for.

In many places indeed of the exposition of the law, Moses speaks of those who are somewhat advanced in age as yoimg men, and on the other hand those who are not yet arrived at old age he entitles elders ; not having regard to the number of their years, whether it be a short or a very long time that they have lived, but to the faculties of their soul, according to the way in which it is influenced, whether it be for good or for evil. Accordingly he calls Ishmael when he has now lived a space of nearly twenty years a child, speaking by a comparison with Isaac who is perfect in virtue ; for, says he, " he took bread, and a skin of water, and gave it to Agar, and put it upon her shoulder, and the child also, when Abraham sent them forth from his house."* And again he says, " IShe put the child down under a pine tree;" and further on he says, '• that I may not see the death of the child."

And yet before Ishmael was born and circumcised, thirteen years before the birth of Isaac, and having been now weaned for more than seven years, he was banished with his mother, because he being illegitimate was mocking the legitimate son, as though he were on terms of equality with him. But nevertheless, though in reality a young man, he is still called a child, being as it were a sophist put in comparison with a wise man ; for Isaac received wisdom for his inheritance, and Ishmael sophistry, as when we define the characters of each wo purpose to show in certain dialogues. Por the same relation which a completely infant child bears to a full-grown man, tlie same does a sophist bear to a wise man, and the encyclical branches of education to real knowledge in virtue.

And again in his great song he calls the whole people, when it is smitten with a desire of innovation by the name suited to foolish and infant age, entitling them " children." "For," says he, "the Lord is just and holy; have they not sinned against him, blameworthy children that they are ? O crooked and perverse generation, is this the requital that ye offer to the Lord ? is the people so foolish and not wise?"* Therefore, he here distinctly calls those men children who deserve blame and have guilt in their souls, and who through folly and senselessness commit many ei-rors in their actions which are not according to uprightness of life ; not having regard to the bodily age of the children, but to the irrational and really childish condition of their minds. Thus indeed, Rachel also, that is beauty of body, is represented as younger than Leah, who is beauty of soul. For the beauty of the body is mortal, but that of the soul is immortal ; and all the things Avhich are accounted honourable when judged of with reference to the outward senses, are all taken together inferior to the one single thing, the beauty of the soul.

And it is in accordance with this principle that Joseph is always spoken of as young and as "the youngest. "f For when he manages the flock " with his illegitimate brethren,";}; he is called 3'oung ; and when his father prays for him, he says, " My youngest son whom I have prayed for, return to me." This is the champion of all the power of the body and the unflattering companion of the abundant supply of external things, who has not yet found out any perfect good more valuable and honourable than that of the elder soul ; for if he had found it, he would have departed and abandoned the whole of Egypt without ever turning back. But now he chiefly prides himself on his nourishing it and supporting it as a nurse ; and when he who sees beholds tbe warlike and authoi'itative part of it overwhelmed in the sea and destroyed, he sings a hymia to Grod.

It is therefore a juvenile disposition, which is not yet able to tend tTie sheep with tlie legitimate genuine virtues, that is to say, to govern and superintend the irrational nature existing in accordance with the soul, but which still with its illegitimate brethren, honours the things which appear good, m preference to joining his legitimate brothers and to those things which really are good. But he is spoken of _ as "youngest," even although he keeps on increasing and improving for the better, in comparison with the perfect man, who thinks nothing honourable but what is good. On which account he says in an encouraging manner, by way of exhortation, "Eeturn to me," a jihrase equivalent to, " Desire the elder opinion." Do not be in everything aiming at innovation, do now love virtue for herself alone ; do not, like a foolish child dazzled by the splendour of the events of fortune, allow yoiirself to be filled entii-ely by deceit and erroneous opinions.

It has therefore been proved, that in many passages Moses is in the habit of calling a person young, having regard not to the age of the body, but to the desire of the soul for innovation ; and also Ave will now proceed to show that he calls some persons elders, not because they are oppressed by old age, but as being worthy of honour and respect. Who then of those persons, who are acquainted with the sacred scriptures, is ignorant that the wise Abraham is represented as less long lived than almost any one of his ancestors ? And yet of all those who lived to the most extreme old age there is not one, as I think, who is called an elder, but he alone has this title given to him. Therefore, the sacred scriptures say, that " Abraham was now old and advanced in years," and, "The Lord blessed Abraham in all things." * This appears to me to be added as a sort of explanatory cause for what has been said before, namely, why the wise man is called the elder.

For when the rational part of the soul is made of a good disposition by the kind providence of God, and when it reasons not only about one species, but about everything which is presented to it, using older opinion, it then becomes blessed, and is itself the older part of the people. Thus also he is accustomed to call the members of the assembly of the God-loving people which consists of the number of ten sevens, elders. For we read in the scripture the direction given to Moses, " Assemble for me seventy men of the elders of Israel, whom you yourself know that they are elders." * Therefore, it is not only those persons who are looked upon by ordinary people as old men, inasmuch as they are hierophants, but those whom the wise man alone knows, whom he thinks worthy of the appellation of elders. For those whom he rejects, like a skilful mouey-changer, from the coinage of virtue, being alloyed, are all in their souls inclined to innovation ; but those whom he wishes to make friends to himself, are of necessity well tested and approved, and elders as to their minds.

Therefore, the scripture is seen to prove each particular of what I have said more plainly to those who have taught themselves to obey one injunction of the law. "

For if," says the scripture, " a man has two wives, the one beloved and the other hated, and if she who is beloved bears him a child, and also she who is hated, and if the child of the wife who is hated be the first born, then, on the day on which he bestows on his sons the inheritance of his substance, he shall not be able to give the share of the first born to the son of her who is beloved, overlooking his real first born son, the child of her who is hated ; but he must recognize the son of her who is hated as his first born, to give him a double share of all the possessions that belong to him, because he is the beginning of his children, and the rights of the first born belong to him." f You observe here now that he never calls the son of the wife that is beloved the first born or the elder, but he often gives this title to the son of her who is hated ; and yet he has already pointed out that the son of her who is beloved was in point of time the first, and the son of her who is hated the last, at the very beginning of this injunction ; for he says, "

If the beloved wife and she who is hated both bear children." But nevertheless the off'spring of the first mentioned, even though it may be considerably earlier in point of time is looked upon as yoimger by right reason when it comes to decide between them. But the offspring of her who is spoken of in the second place, even though it may come after as to the time of its birth, is thought worthy of the more important and elder share. Why so ? because we say' that she who is beloved is the symbol of pleasure, and she who is hated is the emblem of prudence. Por the chief multiude of men love the company of the one to excess, inasmuch as she, from her own treasures, proffers them most seductive charms and allurements, from the very first moment of their birth to the extremity of old age ; but of the other they detest excessively the austere and very dignified look, just as silly children dislike the profitable but unpleasant reproofs of their parents and guardians.

And both the wives become mothers : the one bringing forth that disposition in the soul which loves pleasiire, and the other that which loves virtue ; but the lover of pleasure is imperfect, and in reality is always a child, even if he reaches a vast age of many years. But, on the other hand, the lover of virtue, though he is in old age as to his wisdom, while still in his swaddling clothes, as the proverb has it, will never grow old. In reference to which Moses says very emphatically with respect to the son of virtue, which is hated by the generality of men, that " he is the beginning of his children," being, forsooth, the first both in order and precedency. And to him belong the rights of the first-born by the law of nature, and not by the lawless principle existing among men.

The prophet, then, in accordance with this law, and as it were shooting his arrows with happy aim at the appointed mark, in strict agreement with what has gone before, represents Jacob as younger in point of age than Esau (because from our very earliest birth folly is bred up with us, and the desire of what is honourable is engendered subsequently), but as older in point of power.

In consequence of which Esau is deprived of his birthright as the elder son, but Jacob is very naturally invested with it ; and the arrangements made with respect to the sons of Joseph are consistent, if we examine them carefully and with much consideration ; when the wise man, under the influence of immediate inspiration, having them both standing before him, does not put his hands on their heads, directing them as the youths are straight before him and immediately, but crossing his hands, so as to touch with his left the head of the one who appears to be the elder, and with his right that of him who seems the younger ; and the elder one in point of age is called Manasseh, and the younger is called Ephraim.* A-ud these names, if they are translated into the Greek language will be found to be symbols of memory and recollection ; for the name Manasseh, being interpreted, means "from forgetfulness," and which by another name is called "recollection;" for he who comes to a recollection of what he has forgotten is advancing out of forgetfulness. But Ephraim being interpreted means "fruit-bearing," a most appropriate appellation for memory ; because the fruit which is the most useful and truly eatable for souls is lasting memory, which never forgets.

Memory, therefore, exists best when meeting with manly and sohd natures, in respect of which it is looked upon as younger, having been brought forth late ; but forgetfulness and recollection, almost from the earliest birth of a man, dwell alternately with every one, on which account recollection has the precedence in point of time, and is placed on the left hand by the wise man when he is arranging the two in order; but memory will share the chief honours of virtue, which the lover of Grod, receiving eagerly, Avill think worthy of a better portion hy himself. Therefore, the first man, being become sober, and knowing what his younger son had done to him, imprecates very terrible curses on him ; for, in truth, when the mind recovers its sobriety, it does in consequence immediately perceive aU that innovating wickedness has previously done to it, which, while it was intoxicated, it was unable to comprehend.

We must now then consider whom the wise man here curses ; for this is one of the matters especially deserving of investigation, since he curses not the son who appears to have done the wrong, but his son, and his own grandson, of whom he has not mentioned any apparent sin at present, either small or great ; for he who from superfluous curiosity wished to see his father naked, and who laughed at what he saw, and who divulged what ought properly to have been concealed in silence, was Ham, the son of Noah ; but he who bears the blame for the offences committed by the other, and who reaped the fruit of them in curses is Canaan ; for ■^ Genesis xlviii. 13. it is said, " Cursed is Canaan the son, tlie servant, the servant of servants, shall he be to his brethren."* And yet, as I said before, what sin had he committed? But they, who are accustomed to explain the formal, and literal, and obvious interpretations of the laws have perhaps considered this by themselves ; but we, being guided by right reason, as it suggests itself to us, will interpret it according to the explanation which is ready to hand, having just made this necessary preface.

A stationary position and motion differ from one another ; for the one is a state of tranquillity, but motion is impetuosity, of which last there are two species — the one that which changes its place, the other that which is constantly revolving about the same place. Now habit is closely akin to the stationary position, and energy to motion ; and what we have here said may be more easily understood by an appropriate example.

It is customary to call an architect, or a painter, or a farmer, or a musician (and so on with other artists), by the aforesaid name of their profession, even if they remain inactive, doing nothing in the way of working at their respective arts, with reference to the skill and knowledge which they have each of them acquired in their respective professions ; but when the architect has taken a material of wood and is working it up, and when the painter having mixed his proper coloiu-s on his pallet, paints the figures which he has in his head ; and when, again, the former cutting furrows in the earth, throws in the seed, and plants, cuttings, and shoots of trees ; and when, also, by way of supplying what he has planted with nourishment, he waters them and draws up channels of water to their roots, and does every thing else which a former may be expected to do ; and also, when the musician adapts metres, and rhythm, and all kinds of melody to his flutes, and harps, and other instruments, and is able even without any manufactured instruments to use the organ with which he is furnished by nature by means of his voice which is furnished with all the tones ; and so on with all the other artists, if it were worth while to mention them separately.

In all these cases, besides the aforesaid names derived from their profession, other names akin to the former ones are added with reference to their work ; so that we predicate of the architect that he builds, of the painter that he portrays, of the farmer that he cultivates the land, of the musician that he plays the flute or the harp, or that he sings, or does something similar. JVow, what men are followed by praise and blame ? Is it not those men who energise and do something ? For when they succeed they meet with praise ; and when, on the other hand, they fail they incur blame ; but those who are scientific, without proceeding to action, remain in tranquillity, having attained this one honour unattended with danger, namely, peace.

Therefore, the same assertion applies to those who live according to folly, and also to all those who live in accordance with virtue or vice. Those who are prudent, and temperate, and manly, and just men in their dispositions are infinite in number, having a happy portion in nature, and institutions in accordance with the law, and exerting themselves in invincible and unhesitating labours ; but the beauty which exists in the ideas in their minds they are not able to display by reason of their poverty, or of their want of rank, or of some disease of the body, or of some one of the other disasters which surround human life ; therefore, they being good have got their good things as it were in bondage and prison. But there are others who have them in an unconfined, and emancipated, and wholly free condition, having unlimited materials and opportunities for their exhibition.

The wise man having an abundance of private and public assisting circumstances by which he can display his acuteness and his wisdom ; the temperate man will make riches which are usually blind and accustomed to excite and tempt men to luxury, farsighted for the future : the just man will exercise authority by which he will for the future be able to assign to each individual without any hindrance, such a share of existing things as agrees with his deserts. The practiser of virtue will display piety, holiness, and a proper care of the sacred places and of the sacred rites performed in them. But without proper opportunities virtues indeed exist, but they are immoveable and like silver and gold, whicli is of no use in the world, because it is treasured up in the secret recesses of the earth.

On the other hand again, one can see innumerable persons unmanly, intemperate, foolish, unjust, impious in their minds, but unable fully to display the disgraceful character of all their vices by reason of the want of opportunity to sin ; but if any important or frequent opportunities present themselves, then filling earth and sea to its extremest boundaries with unspeakable wickedness, and leaving nothing whether great or small uninjured, they overturn and destroy everything at one blow. Por as the power of fire is quiet when it has no fuel, but when there are proper materials it blazes up ; so also all the powers which have reference to the virtue or vice of the soul are extinguished by want of opportunity, as I have said before, but are kindled by a favourable occasion and a happy concurrence of circumstances.

Why then have I said these things, except with the object of teaching that Ham, the son of Noah, is the name of wickedness in a state of inactivity, but his grandson, Canaan, is the name of wickedness in a state of motion? Tor Ham being interpreted, means "warm," but Canaan means "commotion;" and warm in a body implies fever, but in the soul it implies wickedness. For as I suppose disease is the foundation of fever, not only of a part but of the whole body, so also wickedness is a disease of the whole soul. But at one time it is in a state of tl*anquillity, and at another in motion ; now he calls its motion commotion {sdXog), which in the Hebrew language is called Canaan. But no lawgiver ever affixes a punishment to wicked men while in a state of inaction, but only when they are in a state of motion and practise actions in accordance with injustice, just as a moderate man would not care about killing: a snake if it were not about to bite him. For we must leave out of the question, that natural cruelty of soul which in the case of some persons delights to deal destruction upon everything.

Very appropriately, therefore, the just man will appear to have launched his curses against his grandson, Canaan. But I have used the expression "will appear," because in effect he is cursing his son Ham through the medium of Canaan ; for Ham being moved to commit sin does himself become Canaan. Tor there is one subject, namely wickedness, of which one kind is contemplated in a stationary condition, and the other in motion. But a stationary condition is antecedent to motion, so that that which is moved appears to have the relation of offspring to that which is stationary. In reference to which fact Canaan is, according to the order of nature, described as the son of Ham; commotion as the offspring of tranquillity, in order that the statement made in another passage may be true, namely, " visiting the iniquities of the fathers upon the sons to the third and fourth generations."* For against these accomplishments of, and as it were, children of thoughts, punishments advance which await them, but which will hardly seize upon these thoughts which are not carried out by any action, and which consequently escape accusation.

On this account, therefore, in the law concerning leprosy the great and wise Moses speaks of motion and its further progress and diffusion as unclean, but of tranquillity as pure. For he says, "If it be diffused over the skin the priest shall pronounce him polluted. But if the bright colour remain in its place and be not diffused, [he shall pronoimce him clean." f So that, as tranquillity is an abiding of evils and of the passions within the soul (for that is what is intimated by leprosy), it is not liable to reproach ; but its motion and progress are of necessity open to accusation. There is also something like this in the sacred scriptures, where the account of the creation of the universe is given and it is expressed more distinctly. Por it is said to the wicked man, " O thou man, thou hast sinned. Cease to sin:" J because sin is condemned with reference to its being in motion and energising according to wickedness : but tranquillity is free from blame, and is even preservative because of its remaining stationary and inactive.

These things then, I imagine, have nowbeen sufficiently discussed. Let us now examine the affair of the curses, and see what the case is with respect to them: "Cursed," says the scripture, "is Canaan the child; he shall be a servant to his brethren. Blessed be the Lord God of Shem; and Canaan shall be a servant unto them." We said some time ago that Shem bears the same name as good, being called not bj a special name, but the whole genus of good is his name ; in reference to which, the good is the only thing to be named, the only thing worthy of a good report and of glory ; as, on the other hand, evil is the thing with no good report and with an evil fame. Of what prayer then does he think the man worthy who has received a share of the nature of good ?

Surely of some new and extraordinary benediction, which no mortal is able to act up to, and from which, almost as from the ocean itself, abundant and unceasing springs of good things do gush out ever rising high and overflowing ; for he calls the Lord and God of the world and of all the things in it, by a particular grace, the private especial God of Sheiu. And see now how this exceeds all imaginable excess ; for the man of whom such a thing is said, almost receives equal honour with the world ; for when the same being cares for and superintends them both, it follows of necessity that the two things so superintended must be of equal honour and importance ; may we not even say that these gifts are poured out upon him abundantly ? For the master and benefactor of the world, perceptible by the external senses, is called by these appellations, Lord and God ; but of the Good which is appreciable by the intellect, he is merely called the saviour and benefactor, not the master or lord ; for what is wise is dearer to God than what is slavish.

In reference to which principle he speaks clearly in the case of Abraham, saying, "I will not hide from Abraham who is dear to me."* But the man who has this inheritance has advanced beyond the bounds of human |happiness ; for he alone is nobly born, inasmuch as he has God attributed to him as his father, and being his adopted only son, he is not rich, but all-wealthy, dwelling luxuriously in abundance and among genuine good things, not worn out by age, but in a state of vigour and continual renewal, such that besides them there is no good ; being a man not of fair reputation, but of exceeding glory and receiving praise, not of that bastard sort which proceeds from flattery, but that which is founded on truth. He is the only king, having received from the Euler of all things an irresistible power, without a rival, and authority over all things. He is the only free man, being emancipated from that most grievous mistress, vain opinion, whom Grod Avho makes free has torn down, since she was very proud, from her citadel on high, and has utterly destroyed. What then ought a man to do who has been thought worthy of such great and such exceeding blessings, all united in his case ?

What ought he to do, except requite his benefactor with words, and hymns, and songs of praise ? This is as it seems what is obscurely intimated to him in the words, ''Blessed is the Lord God of Shem;"* since it it becomes him who has received the inheritance of God to bless and praise him, since this is the only requital that it is in his power to offer, and since he is utterly unable by any means whatever to do anything further. XII, This, then, is the prayer which Noah offers for Shem ; let us now see what kind of prayer it is that he puts forth for Japhet. He says, " May God make Japhet broad, and let him dwell in the tents of Shem, and Canaan shall be their servant." The object of a man who thinks nothing beautiful but what is good is limited and contracted, for of all the innumerable guides which influence different men he is confined to one alone, namely, to the mind.

But the object of a man who attributes good to three different kinds of things, dividing it as it has reference to the soul, and to the body, and to external things, is more extended, inasmuch as he cuts up the good into a number of small and dissimilar fragments ; on which account Noah very appropriately prays that breadth may be added to him, in order that he may be able to exercise the virtues of the soul, prudence, and temperance, and all the others, and likewise the vigorous health and acute perceptions of the body, strength and vigour, and the other qualities akin to them ; and also the external advantages which contribute to wealth and glory, and to the enjoyment and use of necessary pleasures.

Thus much we may say concerning breadth. We must uow consider who it is who Noah prays may dwell in the tents of Shem, for he does not say very clearly. One may affirm that he means the Lord of the universe ; for what more suitable and beautiful abode in all creation could be found for God beyond a soul completely purified, and thinking nothing beautiful but what is good, and looking upon all things, Avhich are usually held in estimation among men, in the light of subjects and body-giiards of that one thing, good ? But God is said to dwell in a house, not as in respect of place (for he contains everything and is contained by nothing), bvit as in a most especial degree exerting his providence and care in favour of that place ; for it follows inevitably in the case of every one who is master of a house that he has a particular care for that house. But let every one, on whom the love of God has showered good things, pray to God that he may have as a dweller within him the Ruler of all things, who will raise this small house, the mind, to a great height above the earth, and will connect it with the bounds of heaven.

And what is said in the scriptures appears to coincide with this, for Shem is planted as a root of excellence and vntue ; and from this root there sprang up a tree bringing forth good fruit, namely, Abraham, of whom the self-instructed and self-teaching offspring, Isaac, was the fruit, by whom again the virtues which are displayed in labour are sown, the practiser of which is Jacob, the man trained and exercised in wrestling with the passions, having the admonitions of angels for his gymnastic trainers. He is the prince of the twelve tribes, which the scriptures call the " kingdom and priesthood of God," * in reference to their agreement with the original author of their race, Shem, in whose house it was prayed that God might dwell ; for a kingdom is the house of a king, being truly sacred, and the only house free from danger of being plundered.

Perhaps, indeed, the prayer has reference also to Japhet, that he also may make his abode in the dwellings of Shem, for it is well to pray for one who thinks the good things of the body and external advantages the only goods, that he may come over to the only true good, that of the soul, and may not wander from true opinions all his life, thinking advantages which are common to the most accursed and worst of men, such as health, and riches, and all such things as those, goods, when nature has not given any portion of what is really good to any wicked man ; for, by its own nature, what is good can have no participation in what is bad. On tliis account good is treasured up in the soul alone, in the beauty of which no foolisli man has any share. Now, the original progenitor of a virtuous posterity has written that he prayed for this for some of his friends, saying, " Eeturn unto me,"* in order that, returning to adopt his opinions, and looking iipon good alone as beautiful, he might pass by the reports of mistaken men as to the nature of good.

Let him, then, dwell in the house of him who says that the good of the soul is the only beautiful thing ; passing by and repudiating the abodes of others, by whom corporeal and external advantages are held in honour. And very appropriately has he assigned the fool to be a slave to those who cultivate virtue, that, either by passing under a better government he may live a better life, or if he continue in evil doing he may easily be punished by the independent authority of his masters. i/^ Longfellow's Poetical Works, complete, including The Wayside Inn. Twenty-four page Engravings, by Birket Foster and others, and a new I'ortrait. ; or, without the illustrations, 3i. ed. Prose Works, comprlete. Sixteen page Engravings by Birket Foster and others. Loudon's (Mrs.) Entertaining Naturalist. New Kditioii. lUvised by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S. With nearly 500 £ngravings. Is. Marryat's Masterman Ready; or, The Wreck of the I'ioiflc. 93 Engravings. Mission ; or, Scenes in Africa. (\Vritten lor Young People.) Illustrated by GiUiert and Dahid. Pirate ; and Three Cutters. New Edition, with a Memoir of the Author. With 20 Steel Engravings, from Draiuings by Clarkson Stanfif.ld, R.A. Privateer's-Man One Hundred Years Ago. Eight Engiavings on Steel, after Stothard. Settlers in Canada. New Kdltlon. Ten fine Engravings by Gilbert and Dalziel.

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As to the preceding topics, what has been already said will be sufficient. We must next proceed to consider, and that in no slight or cursory manner, the philosophical account which Moses gives us of the confusion of languages ; for he speaks in the following manner : " And all the earth had one pronunciation, and there was one language among all men. And it came to pass, as they were moving from the east, that they found a pkin in the land of Shinar, and dwelt there. And one man said to his neighbour, Come, let us make bricks, and let us burr them with fire ; and they had bricks for stone, and asphalt for mortar. And they said, Come, let us build ourselves a city, and a tower whose head shall reach to heaven ; and let us make for ourselves a name, before we are scattered over the face of all the earth. And the Lord came down to see the city, and the tower, which the sons of men had builded.

And the Lord said, Behold, all mankind is one race, and there is but one language among them all ; and they have begun to do this thing, and now there will not fail unto them anything of all the things which they desire to do. Come, let us go down and confuse their language there, so that each may not understand the voice jf his neighbour. And the Lord scattered them from thence over the face of all the earth, and they desisted from building the city, and the tower. On this account, the name of it was called Confusion, because there the Lord confused the languages of all the earth, and from thence the Lord scattered them over the face of all the earth."*

Those who are discontented at the constitution under which their fathers have lived, being always eager to blame and to accuse the laws, being impious men, use these and similar instances as foundations for their impiety, saying, "Are ye even. now speaking boastfully concerning your precepts, as if they contained the rules of truth itself? For, behold, the books which you call the sacred scriptures do also contain fables, at which you are accustomed to laugh, when you hear others relating them." And what is the use of devoting our leisure to collecting the fables interspersed in so many places throughout the history of the giving of the law. as if we had especial leisure for the consideration of calumnies, and as if it were not better to attend merely to what is under our hands and before us ?

Certainly, this one fable resembles that which is composed about the Aloadae, who the greatest and most glorious of all poets, Homer, says, had in contemplation to heap the three loftiest mountains on one another, and to build them into one mass, hoping that by this means there would be a road for them, as they were desirous to mount up to heaven, and that by these mountains it would be easy for them to be raised to the height of the sky. And the verses of Homer on this subject are these : — High on Olympus' top they strove to raise Gigantic Ossa ; and on Ossa's heights To place the leafy Pelion, that heaven Might thus become accessible. But Olympus and Ossa and Pelion are the names of mountains. But instead of these mountains the lawgiver represents a tower as having been built by these men, who, out of ignorance and wicked ambition, were desirous to reach the heaven.

Every alienation of mind, then, is grievous ; for even if every portion of the whole earth could be built over, a slight foundation being first laid, and then if a superstructure could be raised in the fashion of a single pillar, it would still be an enormous distance removed from the heavenly sphere, and above all would it be so according to the tenets of those curious philosophers who have affirmed that the earth is the centre of the universe.

And there is also another story akin to this, related by the devisers of fables, concerning the sameness of language existing among animals : for they say that formerly, all the animals in the world, whether land animals, or aquatic ones, or winged ones, had but one language, and that, just as among men Greeks speak the same language as Greeks, and the present race of barbarians speak the same language as barbarians, exactly in the same manner every animal was able to converse 'with every other animal with which it might meet, and with which it did anything, or from which it suffered anything, so that they sympathised with one another at their mutual misfortunes, and rejoiced whenever any of them met with auy good fortune ; for they could impart their pleasures and their annoyances to one another by their sameness of language, so that they felt pleasure together and pain together ; and this similarity of manners and union of feelings lasted, until being sated with the great abundance of good things which they enjoyed, as often happens, they were at last drawn on to a desire of what was unattainable, and even sent an embassy to treat for immortality, requesting to be released from old age, and to be always endowed with the vigour of youth, saying, that already one auimal of their body, and that a reptile, the serpent, had received this gift ; for he, having put off old age. was allowed again to grow young ; and that it was absurd for the more important animals to be left behind by an inferior one, or for their whole body to be distanced by one. However, they suffered the punishment suitable to their audacity, for they immediately were separated in their language, so that, from that time forth, they have not been able to understand one another, by reason of the difference in the dialects into which the one common language of them all had been divided.

But he who brings his account nearer the truth, has distinguished between the rational and irrational animals, so that he testifies that identity of language belonged to men alone : and this also, as they say, is a fabulous story. And indeed they affirm, that the separation of language into an infinite variety of dialects, which Moses calls the confusion of tongues, was effected as a remedy for sins, in order that men might not be able to co-operate in common for deeds of wickedness through understanding one another ; and that thev misrht not. when they were in a manner deprived of all means of communication with one another, be able with united energies to apply themselves to the same actions. But this precaution does not appear to have turned out of any use ; for since that time, though men have been separated into different nations, and have no longer used one language, nevertheless, land and sea have been repeatedlv filled with unspeakable evils. B -2 For it wa3 * -i the languages which were the causes of men's uniting for evil objects, but the emulation and rivalry of their souls in wrong-doing.

For even those who have had their tongues cut out can intimate what they wish by nods and looks, and other positions and motions of the body, not less than by a distinct utterance of words. And besides this consideration, there is the fact that, very often, one nation by itself, having not merely one language, but one code of laws, and one system of manners, has arrived at such a pitch of iniquity that, as to a superfluity of wickedness, it may counterbalance the sins of all the men in the world put together. And again, through ignorance of foreign languages, many persons, having no foreknowledge of the future, have been anticipated and overwhelmed by those who were plotting against them ; as, on the other hand, by knowledge of foreign languages, men have been able to repel fears and dangers with which they have been threatened : so that a community of language is an advantageous thing rather than an injurious one : since, even at the present day, nothing contributes so greatly to the safety and protection of the people of each country, and particularly of the natives, as their being of one language.

For if a man has learnt many dialects, he immediately is looked upon with consideration and respect by those who are also acquainted with them, as being already a friendly person, and contributing no small introduction and means of friendship by reason of his familiarity with words which they too understand ; which familiarity very commonly imparts a feeling of security, that one is not likely to suffer any great evil at the hands of such a man. Why, then, did God remove sameness of language from among men as a cause of evils, when it seems it should rather have been established as a most useful thing ?

Those, then, who put these things together, and cavil at them, and raise malicious objections, will be easily refuted separately by those who can produce ready solutions of all such questions as arise from the plain words of the law, arguing in a spirit far from contentious, and not encountering them by sophisms drawn from any other source, but following the connection of natural consequences, which does not permit them to stumble, but which easily puts aside any impediments that arise, so that the course of their arguments proceeds without any interruption or mishap. We say then that by the expression, that "all the earth had but one pronunciation and one language," is intimated a symphony of great and unspeakable evils, which cities have inflicted upon cities, nations upon nations, and countries upon countries, and through which men not only wrong one another, but also behave with impiety towards God, and yet these things are the iniquities of many ; but let us consider the ineffable multitude of evils which proceed from each individual man, and especially when he is under the influence of that ill-timed, and inharmonious, and unmusical agreement.

Now who is there who does not know the great influence of fortune, when men, in addition to the diseases or mutilations of the body, are attacked also by poverty and want of reputation ? And again, when these things are further united to diseases of the soul, in consequence of moody melancholy, driving men beside themselves, or of extreme old age, or of any other severe calamity which presses upon them ? For even one of these evils here mentioned by itself, when it opposes a man with violence, is sufficient to overthrow and to crush even one who is very proud and haughty ; but when all these evils, to wit, the evils of the body, and the evils of the soul, and external misfortunes, all come together as if in one regular battalion, moving by previous arrangement at the same time, so as to attack him in one body, what resolution is there which they will not overpower? For when the guards are slain, it follows of necessity that he who relies on his guards must fall.

Now the guards of the body are wealth, glory, and honours, which set it up and raise it on high, and make it proud, just as the contrary things, dishonour, want of reputation, and poverty, throw it down like so many enemies. Again, the body-guards of the soul are hearing, and seeing, and smelling, and taste, and the whole band of the outward senses, and also health, and strength, and vigour, and energy. For the mind, when walking among and living in the company of these things, as between well-fortified boundaries firmly standing and solidly established, triumphs and rejoices, meeting with no hindrance on any side to prevent it from exerting its own impulses, but having its road in every direction easy, and level, and open, and easy to be travelled. But the things which are set in opposition and hostility to these guards are mutilation of the organs of the outward senses, and disease, as I have said before, by which the mind is often precipitated into disaster ; and these things are all the results of fortune, very grievous and intrinsically miserable, bat still, if compai'ed with those which are brought on ourselves by our own deliberate will, they are far lighter.

Let us now again in its turn consider what is the united body of evils voluntarily incurred. Our soul being capable of being divided into three divisions, one division is said to have fallen to the lot of the mind and of reason, the second to passion, and the third to appetite ; and each separate one of these has its own peculiar evils, and also they have all common and mutual diseases. Since the mind reaps the harvest which folly, and cowardice, and intemperance, and injustice sow ; and passion brings forth frantic and insane strife and conflict, and all the other numerous evils with which it is pregnant; and appetite disseminates in every direction the impetuous and fickle loves of youth which descend upon every object, animate or inanimate, which it chances to meet with. For then, as if in any vessel, the sailors, and the passengers, and the pilots, had all, under the influence of insanity, agreed to destroy it, those who have joined in the plot against it are none the less involved in the same destruction.

For the heaviest of all evils, and almost the only one that is incurable, is the unanimous energy of all the parts of the soul agreeing to commit sin, not one of the parts being able to act with soundness (just as is the case in an evil affecting the whole people), so as to heal those that are sick ; but even the physicians being diseased as well as their patients, whom the pestilential disease has overwhelmed and weighs down under a confessed calamity. Of this great evil, that great deluge described by the lawgiver is an image ; for the torrents from heaven continually pouring down cataracts of wickedness itself with impetuous violence, aiid springs from the ground (by which I mean the body) continually bursting up and pouring forth streams of every passion in great numbers and vast size, which, uniting and being mingled in the same stream with the other waters, are thrown into confusion, and overthrow the whole region of the soul which has received them with incessant eddies and whirlpools.

"For," says Moses, "the Lord God, seeing that the wickedness of men were multiplied upou the earth, and that every one did think continually in his heart nothing but evil all his days, determined to punish man " (and here by man I understand the mind, together with all the reptiles and winged creatures, and all the rest of the multitude of wild animals which surround him), by reason of his incurable wickedness ; and the punishment which God decided upon was the deluge. For there was unbounded freedom in sinning, and unlimited licence in doing wrong, no one hindering it, but all restraints being shamelessly broken down in such a way that there was no fear left behind to restrain those who were thoroughly ready to snatch at abundant supplies for enjoyment of every kind. And may we not say that this was natural ?

For it was not only one portion of the soul which was corrupted in such a way that it could still be preserved by the sound condition of the other parts ; but there was no part whatever of it which was left free from disease or from corruption. For the incorruptible Judge, says Moses, seeing that every thought of man's heart (not one single idea by itself) was evil continually, inflicted upon him a deserved punishment.

These are they who "made a treaty with one another in the valley of Salt."* For the region of the vices and of the passions is a hollow valley, rough, and full of ravines ; truly salt, and producing bitter pains ; and their treaty, as one that was not worthy of being confirmed by any oath or by any libation, the wise Abraham, who knew the character of it, annulled. For it is said in the scripture that, "All these men made a treaty at the valley of Salt, that is the sea of Salt." Do you uot perceive that they who are barren of wisdom and blinded as to the intellect which it would be natural to expect should be sharp-sighted, having the name of Sodomites from their real character," did, with all their people united together, from young to old, surround the house in a circle "f (that is to say, the house of the soul), in order to pollute and contaminate those strangers from a foreign land, who had been received in hospitality, namely, sacred and holy reasons, the guards and defenders of the soul ; no one whatever attempting either to resist those wrong doers, or to avoid doing wrong himself? For Moses does not speak of some as having consented and of others haviug stood aloof; but, as he says. " The whole people surrounded the house all together, both old and young," having entered into a conspiracy against all those holy actions and words which it is customary to call angels.

But Moses, the prophet of God, will meet them and check them though they come on with exceeding boldness; even though, placing in the front him who is the boldest and the most forward and able speaker among them as their king, namely speech, they rush on with one impulse, hoping to increase their strength as they go on, and overflowing like a river ; " For behold," says Moses, " the king of Egypt is coming to the water ; but do thou go to meet him, and stand on the bank of the river."* Therefore the wicked man goes forth to the stream of iniquities and passions, and all collected evils, which are here likened to water ; but the wise man first obtains from God, who always stands firm, an honour akin to his undeviating, and in all respects and under all circumstances, unchangeable power ; for we read in the scripture, " But do thou stand here with me,"f that having laid aside doubt and vacillation, the dispositions of an infirm soul, he may put on that most steadfast and trustworthy disposition, faith.

In the next place, even while standing still, he (which seems a most extraordinary thing) goes forward to meet him ; for it is said to him, "Thou shalt stand meeting him," and yet to go to meet is a part of motion, while to stand still is regarded as characteristic of tranquillity. But the prophet does not here say things which are incon sistent, but rather such as are exceedingly in accordance with nature ; for the man whose mind is naturally disposed to be tranquil, and is established undeviatingly, must necessarily be at variance with all those who delight in disorder and confusion, and who by artificial storms seek to disturb him who is capable of enjoying tranquillity.

It is very appropriately said that the meeting took place on the bank of the river; but the banks are also called the lips, and the lips are the boundaries of the mouth, and are a sort of fence to the tongue, through which the stream of discourse is borne, when it begins to be uttered ; but those who hate virtue and who love learning, use speech as their ally for the exposition of doctrines which are disapproved; and again on the other hand, virtuous men employ it for the refutation of such doctrines, and for establishing the irresistible strength of the better and true wisdom. When then, after having had recourse to every expedient of contentious doctrines, men are destroyed, being overwhelmed by the opposing violence of contrary arguments, then the wise man will very justly and suitably establish a most sacred chorus, and melodiously sing a triumphal song ; " For," says Moses, " Israel saw the Egyptians," not dead in any other place, but "on the bank (%i/\oc) of the river;"* meaning here by death, not the separation of the soul from the body, but the impetuous onset of unholy doctrines and assertions, which men utter by the mouth, and tongue, and the other organs of speech.

But the death of speech is silence, not that silence which well-bred people cultivate, making it a symbol of modesty — for this silence is itself a faculty and a sister of that one which is developed in speech, arranging what is to be said with reference to time — but that silence which the sick and the weary against their will endure, on account of the strength of their antagonists, because they cannot find any handle to answer them ; for whatever they touch slips away from them, and whatever thing they seek to take their stand on does not remain, so that they of necessity fall before they stand, like that hydrostatic machine called the helix; for in the middle of that engine there are some steps, which the husbandman when he desires to water his fields mounts up upon, but is rolled round of necessity, and in order to avoid falling he is continually catching at the nearest firm thing that he can lay his hands on, which he takes hold of and so supports his whole body ; for instead of his hands he uses his feet, and instead of his feet he uses his hands ; for he stands on his hands, by means of which, actions are usually done, and he acts with his feet on which it is natural to stand.

But many, who are not able vigorously to refute the plausible inventions of the sophists, because they have not very much practised discussion by reason of their continued application to action, have taken refuge in the alliance of the only wise Being, and have besought him to become their defender. As one of the friends of Moses, when praying, says in his hymns, " Let the treacherous lips become mute;"t and how can they become mute if they are not curbed by the only being who has speech itself as his subject ? We must therefore flee, without ever turning back, from all associations entered into for the purposes of sin ; but the alliance made with the companions of wisdom and knowledge must be confirmed. In reference to which I admire those who say, " We are all one man's sons, we are men of peace,"* because of their well-adapted agreement; since how, I should say, could you, 0 excellent men, avoid being grieved at war, and delighted in peace, being the sons of one and the same father, and he not mortal but immortal, the man of God, who being the reason of the everlasting God, is of necessity himself also immortal ?

For they who make out many beginnings of the origin of the soul, being devoted to the evil which is called polytheism, and turning each individual of them, to the honour of different beings, have caused great confusion and dissension both at home and abroad, from the beginning of their birth to the end of their life, filling life with irreconcilable quarrels ; but they who rejoice in one kind alone, and who honour one as their father, namely right reason, admiring the well-arranged and all-musical harmony of the virtues, live a tranquil and peaceful life, not an inactive and ignoble one, as some persons think, but one of great manliness, and sharpened, and vigorous against those who endeavour to break the confederacy which they have formed, and who are always studying to bring about a violation of the oaths which have been taken ; for it has come to pass that the men of peace have become men of war, sitting down to attack and to oppose those who seek to overturn the firmness of the soul.

And there is testimony in support of this assertion of mine ; first of all, in the disposition of every lover of virtue which acknowledges these inclinations ; and secondly, in that comrade of the band of the prophets, who being inspired with a sacred frenzy, spoke thus, " O my mother, how hast thou brought me forth, a man of war, and a mau of disquietude to all the earth ! I have not benefited them, and they have not benefited me ; nor is my strength free from their curses. "f But is not every wise man of necessity an irreconcilable enemy to all wicked men, not indeed using the apparatus of triremes or warlike engines, or arms, or soldiers, for his defence, but reasons ?

For when he sees war stirred up in the midst of tranquil peace, so as to be continued and incessant among all men, both public and private, not existing only among nations and countries, and cities and villages, but also in every house, and between each particular individual; who is there who does not reproach and admonish and seek to correct the foolish men whom he sees, and not by day only, but also by night, his soul being unable to remain tranquil by reason of the hatred of wickedness implanted in his nature ?

For they do in peace every thing that is done in war ; they plunder, they ravage, they drag into slavery, they carry oft booty, they lay waste, they behave insolently, they assault, they destroy, they pollute, they murder treacherously, they murder openly if they are the more powerful ; for every one of them, proposing to himself riches or glory as his object, aims all the actions of his life as so many arrows at it, and neglects equality, and pursues inequality, and repudiates associations, and labours to acquire to himself all the possessions together properly belonging to every one ; he is a misanthrope and a hater of all his fellows, making a hypocritical pretence of benevolence, being a companion of a bastard kind of flattery, an enemy of genuine friendship, a foe to truth, a champion of falsehood, slow to do good, swift to do injury, very ready to calumniate, very slow to defend, clever at deceiving, most perjured, most faithless, a slave of anger, yielding to pleasure, a guardian of all that is evil, a destroyer of all that is good.