The Works of Philo (complete)

For it must be the mere spirit of obstinacy and arguing to say that all these events took place by mere chance, for if indeed one or two of them had been punished at different periods or by some other mode of punishment, then it would have been reasonable to impute their fate to the uncertainty of fortune, but when they all died together and at one time, and by no other punishment but by that precise end which is appointed in the laws for the punishment of such crimes as those of which they had been guilty, it is surely fair to say that they perished by the direct condemnation of God.

But if any of the violent men who are unmentioned, and •who have at different times risen up against the people in their several states, and have enslaved not only other nations, but their own countries too, have still died without meeting with punishment, it is not to be wondered at, for in the first place man does not judge as God judges, because we investigate what is visible to ourselves, but he descends into the secret recesses of the soul without making any noise, and there contemplates the mind in the clear light, as if in the sun ; for stripping off from it all the ornaments in which it is enveloped, and seeing its devices and intentions naked, he immediately distinguishes between the bad and the good.

Let not us then, preferring our own judgment to that of God, assert that it is more unerring or more full of wisdom than his, for that is not consistent with holiness ; for in the one there are many things which deceive it, such as the treacherous outward senses, the insidious character of the passions, the most terrible attacks of vice, but in the other there is nothing which can at all conduce to deceit or error, but justice and truth, by which each separate action is determined on, and in this way is naturally rectified in the most praiseworthy manner. Do not thou, then, my good friend, consider tyrannical power, that most unprofitable of all things, to be a seasonable possession ; for neither is punishment disadvantageous, but it is either more beneficial, or at all events not injurious to the good to suffer due punishment, on which account it is expressly comprehended in all laws which are wisely enacted, and those who have established such laws are praised by every one ; for what a tyrant is in a people, that is punishment in a law.

When therefore a want and terrible scarcity of virtue seizes upon cities, and when a great abundance of folly overwhelms everything, then God, like the stream of an overflowing torrent, being desirous to wash away all the power and impetuosity of wickedness, in order to purify our race, gives vigour and power to those men who by their natures are fitted to exercise dominion, for without a stern soul wickedness cannot be got rid of. And just as cities keep executioners for the punishment of murderers, and traitors, and sacrilegious persons, not because they approve of the dispositions of the men, but because they have need of the serviceable part of their ministrations ; in the same manner the Ruler of this mighty city, the world, appoints tyrants, like ordinary executioners, to be over those cities in which he sees that violence, and injustice, and impiety prevail, and all other kinds of evils in abundance, that he may by these means put an end to their existence.

And then he thinks it right to pursue the guilty, as men who have been serving these vices from the impulses of an impure and pitiless soul, with every punishment imaginable, as the ringleaders ; for as the power of fire when it has consumed the fuel which was given to it, at last consumes itself also, so also do those who have received supreme power over nations, when they have exhausted the cities and rendered them destitute of inhabitants, at last perish themselves among them, suffering due punishment for all that they have done. And why should we wonder if God employs the agency of tyrants to get rid of wickedness when widely diffused over cities, and countries, and nations? For he very often uses other ministers, and himself brings about the same end by his own resources, inflicting upon the nation famine, or pestilence, or earthquakes, or any other heaven-sent calamity, by which great and numerous multitudes perish every day, and by which a great portion of the habitable world is made desolate, on account of his care for the preservation of virtue.

Therefore I have now, as I conceive, spoken at sufficient length on the present subject, namely, that no wicked man is happy, by which fact above all others it may be established that there is such a thing as providence ; but if you are not thoroughly convinced, then tell me boldly what is the doubt which is still lurking in your mind, for then both of us by labouring together shall be able to see clearly what the real truth is. And after some more arguments, he proceeds thus : — God causes the violent storms of wind and rain which we see, not for the injury of those who traverse the sea, as you fancied, or of those who till the earth, but for the general benefit of the whole of the human race, for with his water he cleanses the earth, and with his breezes he purifies all the regions beneath the moon, and by the united influence of both he nourishes and promotes the growth and brings to perfection both animals and plants.

And if at times these things do injure those who put to sea or who till the land at unseasonable moments, it is not to be wondered at, for these men are but a small portion of the human race, and the care of God is exerted for the benefit of all mankind. As, therefore, in a gymnastic school oil is placed there for the common benefit of every one, but still it often happens that the master of the school, by reason of some political necessity changes the arrangement of the usual hours of exercise, by which means some of those who wish to anoint, themselves come too late ; in like manner God, who takes care of the whole world as if it were a city committed to his charge, does sometimes cause the summer to resemble winter, and winter to assume the characteristics of spring, for the common benefit of the universe, even though some captains of ships, or some cultivators of the ground, may very likely be injured by this irregularity of the seasons.

Therefore He, bein" aware that the occasional interchanges of the elements with one another, out of which the world was made, and of which it consists, are a work of the greatest importance and necessity, supplies them without allowing anything to be an obstacle to them ; and frost and snow-storms, and other things of that kind, follow the cooling of the air.

And, again, lightnings and thunders arise from the collision and repercussion of the clouds, none of which things are perhaps effected by any immediate exertion of providence, but the rains and winds are the causes of existence, and nourishment, and growth to all things which are upon the earth, and these phenomena are the natural consequences of those others For just as it often happens, when the master of a gymnastic school, out of rivalry, has gone to extravagant expense, then some of those who are ignorant of all that is becoming, haviug been bespattered with oil instead of water, let all the drops from them fall upon the boards, and then a most slippery mud is the result : nevertheless a man, whose appreciations were just would not say that the hard and the slippery state of the ground was caused by the intention of the master of the school, but that these things had resulted accidentally, in consequence of the abundant quantity of the things supplied. Again, the rainbow, and the halo, and all other things of that kind, are natural consequences of those things becoming mingled with the clouds, not being occurrences which lead and influence nature, but being the results and consequences of the operations of nature.

Not but what these very things themselves do also afford some signs of great importance to wise men, for, guiding their conjectures by them, they predict calms and storms of wind, and fine weather, and tempests. Do you not see the porticoes which embellish the cities ? the greater part of these look towards the south, in order that those who walk under them may be warm in the winter, and may be cool in the summer. There is also another thing which does not happen through the intention of Him who made it, and what is this ? the shadows which fall from the feet indicate the hours to our experience. And again, fire is a most important work of nature, but the consequence of fire is smoke, and nevertheless even this too at times is of some service. At all events in the heat, in the middle of the day, when the fire is rendered invisible by the brilliancy of the beams of the sun, the approach of enemies is indicated by the smoke, and the principle which causes the rainbow is also the same which, in some degree, regulates eclipses.

For eclipses are a natural consequence of the rules which regulate the divine natures of the sun and moon ; and they are indications either of the impending death of some king, or of the destruction of some city, as Pindar also has told us in enigmatical terms, alluding to such events as the consequences of the omens which I have now been mentioning.* being prophetic of events on earth, is expressed by Virgil in a passage of the most exquisite beauty in reference to Caesar's death. Georg. i. 462. Denique, quid vesper serus vehat, unde serenas Ventus agat nubes, quid cogitet humidus auster, Sol tibi signa dabit. Solem quis dicere falsum Audeat ? Ille etiam caecos instare tuinultus Ssepe monet, fraudernque et operta tumescere bella. Ille etiam extincto miseratus Csesare Romam, Quum caput obscura nitidum ferrugine texit Impiaque aeternam timuerunt secula noctem. Tempora quamquam illo tellus quoque, et osquora ponti, Obscaenique canes, importunaeque volucres Signa dabaut. Quoties Cyclopum effervere in agros Vidimus undantem ruptis fornacibus ^Etnam, Flammarumque globos, liquefactaque volvere saxa ! Armorum sonitum toto Germania ccelo Audiit : insolitis tremuerunt rnotibus Alpes. Vox quoque per lucos volgo exaudita silentis Ingens : et simulacra modis palleutia miris Visa sub obscurum noctis : pecudesque locutEC, Infandum ! sistunt amnes, terrseque dehiscunt, Et moestum inlacrimat templis ebur, aeraque sudant.

Proluit insano contorquens vortice silvas Fluviorum rex Eridanus, camposque per omnia And the circle of the Milky Way partakes of the same natural essences with the other stars ; but merely the fact that it is hard to account for, is no reason that those who are acCum stabulis armenta tulit. Nee tempore eodem Tristibus aut extis fibres adparere minaces, Aut puteis manare cruor cessavit : et altae Per noctem resonare, lupis ululantibus, urbes : Non alias ccelo ceciderunt plura sereno Fulgura : nee diri toties arsere cometae. Ergo inter sese paribus concurrere telis Eomanas acies iterum videre Philippi. Or as it is translated by Dryden — " Tbe unerring sun by certain signs declares What the late eve or early morn prepares, And when the south projects a stormy day, And when the clearing north will puff the clouds away. The sun reveals the secrets of the sky, And who dares give the source of light the lie ? The change of empires often he declares, Fierce tumults, hidden treasons, open wars. He first the fate of Caesar did foretell, And pitied Rome, when Rome in Caesar fell, In iron clouds concealed the public light, And impious mortals feared eternal night. Nor was the fact foretold by him alone, Nature herself stood forth and seconded the sun.

Earth, air, and seas with prodigies were signed, And birds obscene and howling dogs divined ; What rocks did ./Etna's bellowing mouth expire From her torn entrails ! and what floods of fire. What clanks were heard in German skies afar Of arms and armies rushing to the war. Dire earthquakes rent the solid Alps below, And from their summits shook the eternal snow. Pale spectres in the close of night were seen, And voices heard of more than mortal men. In silent groves dumb sheep and oxen spoke, And streams, ran backward and their beds forsook ; The yawning earth disclosed the abyss of hell, The weeping statues did the wars foretell, And holy sweat from brazen idols fell. Then rising in his might, the king of floods Rushed through the forests, tore the lofty woods, And rolling o uvards, with a sweepy sway Bore houses, lands, and labouring hinds away. Blood sprang from wells, wolves howled in turns by night, And boding victims did the priests affright. customed to investigate the principles of nature should shrink from examining into it ; for the discovery of those things is most beneficial, and the investigation of them is intrinsically most delightful for its own sake, to those who are fond of learning.

For as the sun and moon exist in consequence of Providence, so also do all things in heaven, even though we are uuable to trace out accurately the respective natures and powers of each, and are, therefore, reduced to silence about them : and earthquakes, and pestilences, and the fall of thunderbolts, and things of that kind, are said indeed to be sent by God, but, in reality, they are not so, for God is absolutely not the cause of any evil whatever of any kind, but the natural changes of the elements produce these effects, not as circumstances which guide nature, but as those which are followed by necessary results, and which do themselves follow naturally upon their antecedent causes. And if some people, who think themselves entitled to immunity meet with some injury from these things, they are still not to find fault with their management and dispensation ; for, in the first place, it does not follow, that if some persons are reckoned virtuous among men, they are so in real truth ; since the criteria by which God judges are far more accurate than any of the tests by which the human mind is guided.

And, in the second place, prophetic wisdom loves to contemplate those things in the world which are of the most comprehensive nature, as in the case of monarchies, and in the governments of armies, we see that it is not any obscure, ignoble, or chance person who is appoiuted to govern the cities or the armies. And some persons say that as on occasion of the slaying of tyrants, it is lawful that their relations also should be put to death, in order that transgressions may be checked by the terrible magnitude of the punishment inflicted : in like manner in pestilential diseases, it is necessary that some of those who are not guilty should be involved in the destruction, in order Such peals of thunder never poured from high, Nor forky lightnings flashed from such a sullen sky ; Red meteor - ran across the ethereal space, Stars disappeared and comets took their place. For this the Emathian plains once more were strewed With Roman bodies, and just heaven thought good To fatten twice those fields with Roman blood." that others who are at a distance may learn moderation.

Besides that, it is inevitable that those who are exposed to a pestilential atmosphere must become diseased just as all persons who are exposed to a storm on board a ship must be all exposed to equal danger. But those wild beasts which are courageous have been created ; for we must not suppress the truth (as if one were to anticipate the defence likely to be made by a man of powerful eloquence and tare it to pieces beforehand), in order that men may, by practising against them, acquire hardihood for the contests of war ; for gymnastic exercises and continued hunting train men and inure their souls in a greater degree even than their bodies to rely upon their own courage, and energy, and strength, so as to disregard the sudden attacks of their enemies.

But those men who are of peaceable character are at liberty to keep themselves not only within their walls, but also even within tents, and there to live in privacy, safe from the designs of any enemies, having vast and countless herds of domestic ' animals to help their enjoyment ; since boars and lions, and animals of that kind, are by their own instinct driven to a distance from cities, not being inclined to expose themselves to danger in consequence of the devices of men. And if any men, being influenced by a spirit of laziness and indolence, living without arms and without preparation, dwell fearlessly among the haunts of wild beasts, then if anything happens to them they must blame not nature but themselves, because when they might have guarded against any such disasters, they have neglected them. Accordingly, before now, I have seen at the horse-races some persons acting in a most careless manner, who, when they ought to have sat still and to have beheld the races in an orderly manner, standing in the middle have been knocked down by the horses' feet and by the wheels, and have met with a proper reward for their folly. We have now, then, said enough on this subject.

But of reptiles, those which are venomous have not been called into existence by an immediate providence, but by the natural consequences of events, as I said before ; for they are brought into life when the moisture which is in them changes to a more violent heat ; and some are vivified by putrefaction, as, for instance, the putrefaction of meat produces maggots, and that which is caused by perspiration produces lice ; but all those which are produced out of a kindred substance, and which have their generation in accordance with the usual spermatic principles which I have mentioned before, are very naturally ascribed to an immediate providence. And I have also heard two accounts given of them as having been created for the advantage of mankind, which I should not think it well to conceal. Now one of them is the following.

Some persons have said that venomous animals contribute greatly to many of the objects of physicians, and that those who reduce that science to a regular system use them in a proper manner, and, acting with great wisdom and prudence, have discovered antidotes, so as to be able to contribute to the unexpected safety of those who were in the greatest possible danger ; and even at the present time one may see thos"e persons who apply themselves to the study of medicine, in a careful and diligent manner, using all these animals and plants in a most skilful manner in the composition of drugs. The other account has no reference to the practice of physicians, but only as it would seem to the studies of philosophers. For it says that all these things have been prepared by God as engines of punishment against offenders, just as generals and rulers prepare halters and chains.

On which account, though they are quiet at other times, they are brought out with great power in the case of people who have been condemned, and whom nature in her incorruptible tribunal has sentenced to death ; for that they lurk in secret holes and in houses, is a falsehood : for it is seen that these creatures flee out of the cities into the fields and into desert places, to avoid man as their master. Not but what, if this is true, there is a certain sense and principle in it ; for rubbish is heaped up in recesses : and quantities of sweepings, and refuse, and such things, are what venomous reptiles love to lurk in, besides the fact that their smell has an attractive power over them. Again, if swallows live among us, it is not at all strange, for we abstain from hunting them ; and a desire of safety is implanted not only in the souls of rational creatures, but also in those of irrational animals. But of those animals which tend to our enjoyment, there is not one which lives with us by reason of the designs which we form against them, except that some do live with those nations to whom the use of them is forbidden by the law.

There is a city of Syria, on the sea shore, Ascalon by name : when I was there, at the time when I was on my journey towards the temple of my native land for the purpose of offering up prayers and sacrifices therein, I saw a most incalculable number of pigeons on the roads and about every house ; and when I inquired the cause of their being there in such numbers, they said that it was not lawful to catch them, for that the use of them had been prohibited to the inhabitants from the earliest ages ; and so the bird had become so thoroughly tame through fearlessness, that it not only hovered about the roofs and came into the houses, but approached their tables also, and grew luxurious in the alliance which it had thus formed.

And in Egypt we may see a still more marvellous thing ; for the crocodile is the most odious of all animals, and one addicted to devour man ; and it is born and brought up in the most sacred way, and although residing in the depths, it feels the benefits which it receives from mankind ; for in those tribes, among which it is honoured, it multiplies in the greatest degree, but among those who injure it it never appears at all : so that there are places where even the most timid persons when sailing by leap out of their ships and swim about with their children.

And in the country of the Cyclops, since the race of these men is a fabulous invention, there is no eatable fruit whatever produced except such as is raised from seed and cultivated by husbandmen, just as nothing is produced from that which does not exist ; but we must not accuse Greece as being sterile and unproductive, for there is a great deal of deep and rich soil in it ; and if the land of the barbarians is superior in fruitfulness, though it is superior in the food which it produces, it is inferior in the men who are nourished by the food, and for whose sake the food is produced. For Greece is the only country which really produces man, that heavenly plant, that divine offshort, producing that most accurately refined reason which is appropriated by and akin to knowledge ; and the cause is this, it is the nature of the intellect to be rendered acute by the lightness of the air ; on which account Heraclitus said with great propriety, "

Where the soil is dry, there the soul is most wise and most excellent ;" and any one may conjecture this from the fact, that men who are sober and contented with a little are wise, and that those who are continually filling themselves with meat and drink are the least sensible, as if their reasoning faculties were drowned by the quantity which they swallow. And on this account we see, in the countries of the barbarians, trees and plants grow to the greatest possible size, by reason of the abundance of nourishment which they receive ; and we see too, that the irrational animals which are found in these regions are the most prolific of any, but the mind is not 80, or, at all events, it is so in a very slight degree, because it is elevated and raised out of the aether itself, while the incessant and uninterrupted evaporations of earth and water have freely boiled over it.

Again, the different kinds of fish, and birds, and terrestrial animals, are not grounds for accusing nature, which invites us to pleasure by those means, but are a terrible reproach to us for our intemperate use of them, for it was necessary, for the due completion of the universe, in order that there should be order and regularity in every portion of it, that there should be produced every possible species of animal. But it was not necessary that that animal, which of all others is most akin to wisdom, namely, man, should rush with such eagerness to the enjoyment of it, as to change his nature into something resembling the ferocity of wild beasts; on which account, even up to the present time, those who have any regard for temperance entirely abstain from such things, eating only vegetables, and herbs, and the fruits of trees, as the most delicious and wholesome food. And these men are instructors for those who look upon the practice of eating such animals to be in accordance with nature, and correct them, and are lawgivers to their respective cities, being men who take care to check the immoderate vehemence of the appetites, and who do not permit the unrestrained use of everything to everybody.

Again, if roses, and crocuses, and all the other beautiful variety of flowers which we see, contribute to health, it would not follow that they all contribute to pleasure ; for the indescribable variety of them makes the powers of some of them more conspicuous than those of others, just as there is a commingling of male and female, contributing to the generation of an animal ; neither of them being calculated, by itself, to produce the effect which the two produce in combination. These things are said, in a most convincing manner, with reference to the rest of the questions raised by you, being quite sufficient to produce conviction in the minds of all who are not obstinately contentious on the subject of God taking great care of human affairs.

About the unstable and changeable condition of human affairs. Page 326. C. If one is to tell the plain truth, man is without real power in anything, never taking a firm hold of anything. I do not mean merely of common things, but not even of those which concern himself ; neither of health, nor of a good condition of the outward senses, nor of soundness in respect of the other parts of his body, nor of his voice, nor of his presence of mind ; for as to wealth, or glory, or friends, or power, or all the other things which depend on fortune, who is there who does not know how thoroughly unstable they are ? So that we must of necessity confess that the supreme power over everything belongs to one being alone, the true Lord of all existing things. About impious men, sinners, <£c. P. 341. D. If you wish to be governed under God as your king, take care not to sin ; but if you commit sin, how can you be under the government of God as your king ? About those people who have renounced such and such a line of conduct, and then turning back again, have adopted that very line which they had renounced. P. 343. D.

Some men, making improvement, have returned back to virtue before coming to the end, the ancient principle of oligarchy having destroyed the principle of aristocracy lately engendered in the soul, which having been quiet for a little while, has subsequently come up over again with greater power than before. Ibid. When a man rightly establishes himself in a virtuous life, with meditation, and practice, and good government, and when having been known by all men as a pious man and one who fears God, he falls into sin, that is a great fall, for he has ascended up to the height of heaven, and fallen down into the abyss of hell. About resurrection and judgment. P. 349. A. It is not possible with God that a wicked man should lose his good reward for a single good thing which he may have done among a great number of evil actions ; nor, on the other hand, that a good man should escape punishment, and not suffer it, if among many good actions he has done wickedly in anything, for it is infallibly certain that God distributes everything according to a just weight and balance. Ibid. B.

The mind is the witness to each individual of the things which they have planned in secret, and conscience is an incorruptible judge, and the most unerring of all judges. About those who are ruled. P. 359. A. He who has learnt how to submit to be ruled, immediately learns how to rule others ; for even if a man were invested with the supreme power over all the earth and all the sea, he would not be a true ruler unless he had also learnt and been previously taught to submit to the rule of others. About anarchy. P. 359. D. Alas, how many and great evils are produced by anarchy! Famine, war, the devastation of lands, the deprivation of money, abductions, fears of slavery, and death. About the foolish and senseless man, <&c. P. 362. E. No wicked man is rich, not even though he hould be the owner of all the mines in the whole world ; but til foolish men are poor. Every foolish man is straitened, jeing oppressed by covetousness, and ambition, and a love of pleasure, and things of that sort, which do not permit the mind to dwell at ease or to enjoy plenty of room. P. 363. A.

There is no greater evil to a man than folly, and the being deprived of the proper use of his reasoning powers and intellect. P. 363. A. Ignorance is the cause of disease and destruction. E 2 About deceit affecting the management of a household. P. 367. D. Every stratagem is not blameable, since guardians of the night appear to act properly when they lie in wait for robbers, and generals when they form ambuscades against the enemy, whom they cannot catch without a stratagem ; and the same principle is applicable to what are called manoeuvres, and to the artifices practised in the contests of wrestlers, for in such cases deceit is accounted honourable. About impossible things. P. 370. B. It is as impossible that the love of the world can co-exist with the love of God, as for light and darkness to co-exist at the same time with one another. About holy men. P. 372. E. The happy nature is that which rejoices on every occasion, and which is not discontented with anything whatever which exists in the world, but is pleased with whatever happens, as being good, and beautiful, and expedient. About leisure and quiet. P. 376. A.

The wise man endeavours to secure quiet and leisure, and periods of rest from work, that he may devote himself peacefully to the meditations on divine matters. About evil-speaking. P. 379. D. Foul speakers and random accusers, who seek to make a display of their art with vain words, being slow to learn what is good, are very quick and ready at learning what is of the opposite character. About counsel. P. 397. D. Everything which is not done with reason is discreditable, just as what is done with reason is beautiful. About old men. P. 404. C. Old age is an unruffled harbour. Ibid. Old age is the time when the vigour of the body is passed by ; the period when the passions can be checked. About gymnasia. P. 405. D. Continued practice makes knowledge firm, just as want of practice engenders ignorance. And, again, practice in any matter increases experience. Ibid. Study is the nurse of knowledge. About calumny. P. 436. D. Calumniators and men discarded from the divine grace, who are afflicted with the same evil disposition of calumny with him, are in all respects hated and detested by God, and removed to a distance from all happiness. Ibid.

What can be worse than calumny? for it seduces the ears and perplexes the minds of those who listen to it, and it makes them brutal and always on a watch for evil, like men engaged in hunting ; but those who are well ballasted and restrained by prudent reason, hate the man who utters calumnies more than him against whom they are uttered, reproving and seeking to check all desire of blaming others until it be either proved by evidence or demonstrated by undeniable proof. About justice and virtue. P. 438. D. If any one embraces all the virtues with earnestness and sobriety, he is a king, even though he may be in a private station. Aboiit voluntary and involuntary sins. P. 526. B. As to sin intentionally is unjust, so to sin unintentionally and out of ignorance is not at once justifiable, but perhaps it is something between the two, that is between righteousness and unrighteousness, and is of what some persons call an indifferent character, for no sin can be an act of righteousness. About initiation into divine mysteries. P. 533. C. It is not lawful to speak of the sacred mysteries to the uninitiated. About the sea. P. 551. D.

It is proper to marvel at the sea, by means of which countries requite one another for the good things which they receive from each other, and by which they receive what they are in need of, and export what they have a suDerfiuity of About equality. P. 556. D. To give equal things to unequal people is an action of the greatest injustice. About physicia?is and medical science. A good physician would not be inclined to apply every kind of salutary medicine at once and on the same day to a patient, as he would know that by such a course he would be doing him more harm than good, but he would measure out the proper opportunities, and then give saving medicines in a seasonable manner ; and he would apply different remedies at different times, and so he would bring about the patient's restoration to health by gentle degrees. About opportunity. P. 563. C. Say what is right, and at the time when it is right, and you will not hear what is not right. Ibid. It is well to economise time. About mysteries. P. 576. D.

Chatterers divulging what ought to be kept buried in silence, do in a mariner from a disease of the tongue pour forth into people's ears things which are not worthy of being heard. Aboiit people who are in a state of pupillage. P. 613. D. To inquire and put questions is the most useful of habits with a view to acquiring instruction. Ibid. He who hungers and thirsts after knowledge, and who is eager to learn what he does not know, abandoning all other objects of care, is eager to become a disciple, and day and night watches at the doors of the houses of wise men. Ibid. For any one to know that he is ignorant is a piece of wisdom, just as to know that one has done wrong is a piece of righteousness. About reproach. P. 630. C. Never reproach any one with misfortune, for nature is impartial, and the future is uncertain ; lest if you yourself should fall into similar misfortunes, you should be found to be convicted and condemned by your own conscience. About a proper constitution. P. 657. C. It is advantageous to submit to one's betters. About a blameable constitution. From the fifth book of the Essays on Genesis. P. 658. E.

A shameless look, and a high head, and a continual rolling of the eyes, and a pompous strut in walking, and a habit of blushing at nothing, however discreditable, are signs of a most infamous soul, which stamps the obscure topics of the reproaches which belong to itself upon the visible body. About familiarity and habituation. P. 681. D. A change of all kinds of circumstances at once to the opposite direction is very harsh, especially when the existing powers are established by the length of time that they have lasted. About correction. P. 683. D. It is useful to be warned by the misfortunes of others. Ibid. Punishment very often warns and corrects those who do wrong ; but if it fails to do so to them, at all events it corrects the bystanders, for the punishments of others improve most people, from fear lest they should suffer similar evils. About associating with wicked men. P. 692. A. Associations with wicked men are mischievous, and very often the soul against its will receives the impression of the insane wickedness of one's associates. About wisdom. P. 693. E. Every wise man is a friend of God. About haughty men. P. 693. E.

Self-conceit, as the proverb of the ancients has it, is the eradication of all improvement, for the man who is full of self-conceit is incapable of improvement. Self-conceit is by nature an unclean tiling. About natural things. P. 711. C. As it is difficult to inoculate anything in a manner contrary to nature, and to introduce anything into nature which does not belong to it, so likewise is it hard to change things which are of such and such a nature from that nature, and to restrain them ; for it has been well said by some one, everything is vain if nature sets herself against it. About man. From the Questions arising in Genesis. P. 748. A. What is the meaning of the expression, " until"* thou return to the dust from which thou wast taken ?

For man was not formed of the dust alone, but also of the divine Spirit ; but since he did not continue in an unchanged condition, he neglected the divine command, and cutting off that constitution which imitated the heaven from his better part, he made himself over wholly to the earth ; for if he had been a lover of virtue, which is immortal, he would beyond all question have received heaven for his inheritance, but since what he sought was pleasure, by means of which the death of the soul is brought upon mankind, he became appropriated to the earth. About Adam. From the Questions arising in Genesis. P. 748. B. " And God brought all the animals to Adam, to see what he would call them;"t for God does not doubt, but since he has given mind to man, the first born and most excellent of his creatures, according to which he, being endowed with knowledge, is by nature enabled to reason ; he excites him, as an instructor excites his pupil, to a display of his powers, and he contemplates the most excellent offspring of his soul.

And, again, he visibly by the example of this man gives an outline of all that is voluntary in us, looking with disfavour on those who affirm that everything happens through necessity, by which some men must be influenced, he on that account commanded man to take upon himself the regulation of these tbings. And this is an employment peculiarly fitting for man, as being endowed with a very high degree of knowledge and most surpassing prudence, the giving of names to the animals being suited to him not only as being wise, but also as being the first nobly born creature. For it was fitting that he should be the founder of the human race, and also the king of everything that is born of the earth, and that he should have this as an especial honour of his own, that, as he was the first who had any acquaintance with the animals, he might also be the first inventor and pronouncer of their names ; for it would have been absurd for them to be left without names, and subsequently to have names given to them by some younger man, to the honour and glory of the elder.

And when Adam saw the figure of his wife, as the prophet says, and that it had been produced not by any connexion, nor out of a woman, as human'beings in after times were produced, but that she was as it were a nature on the borders between these two kinds, like a graft from a shoot of another vine taken off and grafted into a second one, on which account he says, " For this cause a man shall leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave to his wife, and they two shall become one flesh ;"* in saying which he used a most gentle expression, which was at the same time most perfectly true, meaning that they would be united by sympathy in their griefs and joys. From the same book, or else from the last book of the Questions arising in Exodus. Truly the divine place is inaccessible, and one which is hard to be approached, nor is it given even to the purest intellect to be able to ascend to such a height as to touch it.

It is impossible for human nature to behold the face of the living God ; but the word " face " is not used here in its literal meaning, but it is a metaphorical expression, here intended to manifest the purest and simplest form of the living God, since man is not recognized more by anything than by his face, according to his peculiar distinctive qualities and form. For God does not say, " I am not visible in my nature." But who, in fact, is more visible than he who is the Father of all visible things ? And being such with regard to being seen, I am, says he, seen by no mortal man ; and the reason of this is the inability of the created man to behold him. And that I may not become prolix while weaving in all kinds of arguments, it is inevitable that God must first be created (which is not possible), in order for any one to be able to comprehend God. But if any one dies as to this mortal • Genesis ii. 24. life, but still lives, having received in exchange a life of immortality, perhaps he will see what he never saw before.

All the different philosophical sects which have flourished in Greece, and in the countries of the barbarians, when investigating the secrets of nature, have never been able to arrive at a clear perception of even the most trivial circumstances ; and a clear proof of this assertion may be found in the disagreements, and dissensions, and contentions of those of each sect who are seeking to establish their own opinions, and to overthrow those of their adversaries. And the households of those who have been contending for the predominance of this and that sect, have been the causes of universal wars, blinding the human mind by their contradictory quarrels, which might otherwise have been able to see the truth, and fighting hard about what doctrines ought to be abandoned and what ought to be preserved. Now he who desires to form to himself a conception of the most excellent of all beings, ought in the first place to stand firm in his mind, being steadfastly fixed in one opinion, and not varying or wandering in different directions.

And in the next place, he ought to take his stand upon nature, and upon solid grounds, and to abandon all barren and corruptible things, for if anything of a somewhat effeminate character approach him, he will be disappointed of his object, and he will be unable, even if he exert the most acute faculties of sight imaginable, to behold the uncreated God ; so that he will become blind before he sees him, on account of the brilliancy of his beams and the flood of light which distils therefrom. Do you not see that the power of fire in the case of those who stand at a measured distance from it affords light to them, but it burns those who approach too near ? Take care that you do not suffer such an injury as this in your mind, and lest an extravagant desire of an impossible object destroy you. About those who are governed. Out of the first book of the Questions in Genesis. P. 749. E. As pillars support whole houses, so also the power of God supports the whole world, and the best and most God-loving section of the human race. Out of the Questions in Genesis. P. 750. C.

If any one is either in any house, or village, or city, or nation, who is a lover of wisdom, it is absolutely inevitable that that house or city should be the better for his existence in it, for a virtuous man is a common good to all men, bestowing on them advantages proceeding from himself as from a prepared store. About people who carry news, and act as intermediate bearers of answers. From the Questions arising in Exodus. P. 751. B. The influx of evils agitates and disturbs the soul, enveloping it in a giddiness which darkens its perceptions, and compels it to suffer that power of sight which by nature was pre-eminent, but which by habit has become blinded, to be obscured. Ibid. There is nothing so opposite to and inconsistent with the most holy powers of God as injustice. About the sinner and offender. From the Questions arising in Genesis. P. 751. C.

Never to err in any point whatever is the greatest blessing ; but when one has erred, to repent is next akin to it, as a younger good, if one may say so, by the side of an elder, for there are some persons who exult in the offences which they have committed as if they had done good actions, though they are in reality afflicted with a disease difficult to be cured, or I sould rather say incurable. About its being impossible to escape from God. From the last book of Questions arising in Exodus. P. 752. A. He contains all things, while yet he is himself contained by nothing ; for as place is that which contains bodies, and that to which they flee for refuge, so also the divine reason contains the universe and is that which has completed it. About truth and faithful emdence. From the second book of the Questions in Exodus. P. 754. C. By some lawgivers the practice of giving hearsay evidence has been forbidden, on the ground that the truth is established by the eye-sight, but falsehood by hearing. About quiet and ease. From the fourth book of the Questions in Genesis. The wise man is desirous of peace and leisure, that he may have time for meditation on heavenly things.

From the fifth book. Ibid. E. For thus the lover of wisdom never unites with any rash person, even though he may be closely united to him by blood ; nor does he ever consent to dwell with a wicked man, being separated from the multitude by his reasoning powers, on account of which he is said not to be a fellow voyager, or a fellow citizen, or a companion of such men. Ibid. The wise man is a sojourner and a settler, having come as an emigrant from a life of confusion and disorder to one suitable to peaceful and happy men. About the fearful expulsion. From the first book of the Questions in Genesis. P. 772. B. But the essence of the angels is spiritual, but they are very often made to resemble the appearance of men, being transformed on any emergencies which arise. From the second book of the same Questions. Ibid. All the powers of God are winged, being always eager and striving for the higher path which leads to the Father. About heretics. From the first book of the Questions in Exodus. P. 774. B.

All those who have stumbled, being unable to proceed with upright feet, go on slowly, being fatigued a long time before they come to their journey's end ; so also the soul is hindered from proceeding successfully on the path which leads to piety if it has previously fallen in with any of the byeroads of wickedness, for they are great hindrances to it, and the -causes of its stumbling, by means of which the mind becoming lame, proceeds too slowly on the road, according to nature ; and this road, according to nature, is that which ends at the Father of the universe. From the same book. The contentious investigations which men enter into about the virtues of God, improve the intellect and tram it in most pleasant labours, which are also most beneficial to it, and especially when men do not (as those of the present day do) disguise themselves under a false appellation, and contend for the doctrines in appearance only, but do, in an honest and true heart, seek out truth in connection with knowledge.

From the second book of the same treatise. not being more anxious to display melody and harmony in their voices than in their minds ; the eloquence of the wise man does not display its beauty in words only, but in the matters which it proves by its words. From the last book of the Questions in Exodus. Those men who apply themselves to the study of the holy scriptures ought not to cavil and quibble at syllables, but ought first to look at the spirit and meaning of the nouns and verbs used, and at the occasions on which and the manners in which each expression is used ; for it often happens that the same expressions are applied to different things at different times; and, on the contrary, opposite expressions are at different times applied to the same thing with perfect consistency. From the Questions in Genesis.

Those men act absurdly who judge of the whole from a part, instead of, on the contrary, forming their estimate of a part from their knowledge of the whole ; for this is the more proper way to form one's opinion of anything, whether it be a body or a doctrine ; therefore the divine code of laws is, in a manner, a united creature, which one must regard in all its parts and members at once with all one's eyes, and one must contemplate the meaning and sense of the whole scripture with accuracy and clearness, not disturbing its harmony nor dissevering its unity ; for the parts will have a very different appearance and character if they are once deprived of their union. From the fourth book of the same treatise. Let there then be a law against all those who profess to look on what is venerable and divine, in any other than a respectful and holy spirit, inflicting punishment on their blindness. From the second book of the Questions in Exodus. P. 775.

There is nothing either more pleasant or more deserving of respect than to serve God, whose power is superior to that of the mightiest sovereign ; and it appears to me that the greatest kings* have also been chief priests, showing, by their actions, that it is right for those who are the masters of other men nevertheless to serve the servants of God. About a Icing not being greatly respected. From the first book of the Questions in Genesis. Ibid. E.

No foolish man is a king even though he be invested with supreme power by sea and land, but he only is a king who is a virtuous and God-loving rr.an, even though he may be deprived of those supplies and revenues, by means of which kings in general are strengthened in their sovereignty ; for as a rudder, or a collection of drugs, or a flute, or a harp, are all superfluities to a man who has no knowledge of the art of steering, or medicine, or music, because he is not able to employ auy one of them to the purpose for which it is made, while they may be said to be excellently adapted to and to be very seasonable for a pilot, or a physician, or a musician ; so also, since kingcraft is an art, and the best of arts, we must look upon him who does not know how to exert it as a private individual ; and as the man who does know how to exert it well as the only king. About the stable and unstable man. From the Questions in Genesis. P. 776. E. A facility of change must of necessity belong to man, by reason of the unsteadiness of external circumstances.

Accordingly we thus oftentimes, after we have chosen friends, and have associated with them for some time, though we have nothing to accuse them of, turn away from them with aversion as enemies. About those who change their minds and blame themselves. P. 776. E. These are the words of Philo :— Caius, as he was ignorant of the greatness of the cause, that he should never fall into death, suffered a more simple punishment ; but his imitator, not being able to take refuge in the plea of ignorance, is subjected to a double punishment ; on which account Lamech shall be avenged seventy and seven fold, for the reason above mentioned, according to ■which he was the second offender who had not thought fit to take warning from the punishment of him who had offended before, and he clearly receives his punishment, being a more simple one ; as in numbers the units have a highly multiplied power, resembling that of the decades, such as now Lamech, changing his mind, denounces against himself. From the same book of the same author. P. 777.

To be aware of what one has done amiss, and to blame one's self, is the part of a righteous man ; but to be insensible to such things causes still more grievous evils to the soul, and the conduct of wicked men. About the courage of a woman. From Philo, from the Questions arising in Exodus. Ibid. B. It is said by men who have applied themselves to the study of natural philosophy, that the female is nothing else but an imperfect male. About the oracles of God. The words of Philo, out of the second book of his Questions arising in Genesis. P. 782. A. It is not lawful to divulge the sacred mysteries to the uninitiated until they are purified by a perfect purification ; for the man who is not initiated, or who is of moderate capacity, being unable either to hear or to see that nature which is incorporeal and appreciable only by the intellect, being deceived by the visible sight, will blame what ought not to be blamed. Now, to divulge sacred mysteries to uninitiated people, is tha act of a person who violates the laws of the privileges belong ing to the priesthood. From the same author. Ibid. B.

It is absurd that there should be a law in cities that it is not lawful do divulge sacred mysteries to the uninitiated, but that one may speak of the true rites and ceremonies which lead to piety and holiness to ears full of folly. All men must not partake of all things, nor of all discourses, above all, of such as are sacred ; for those that desire to be admitted to a participation in such things, ought to have many qualifications beforehand. In the first place, what is the greatest and most important, they ought to have deep feelings of piety towards the only true and living God, and correct notions of holiness, avoiding all inextricable errors which perplex so many about images and statues, and in fact about any erections whatever, and about unlawful ceremonies, or illicit mysteries. In the second place, they must be purified with all holy purifications, both in soul and body, as far as it is allowed by their national laws and customs. In the third place, they must give credible evidence of their entering into the common joy, so that they may not, after having partaken of the sacred food, like intemperate youths, be changed by satiety and overabundance, becoming like drunken men; which is not lawful. About evil-doers.

The words of Philo, out of the Questions arising in Exodus. P. 782. D. The man who lives in wickedness, bears about destruction within him, since he has living with him that which is both treacherous, designing, and hostile to him. For the conscience of the wicked man is alone a sufficient punishment to him, inflicting cowardice on his soul from its own inmost feelings, as it feared blows. From the same author. Ibid. The life of the wicked man is subject to pain and sorrow, and full of fear ; and in everything which it does according to the outward senses, it is mingled with fear and grief About monks who break thevr vows. The words of Philo, from the Questions arising in Exodus. P. 784. C. The reasoning of some persons is very rapidly satiated, who, though they have been borne upwards on wings for a little while, yet do presently return back again ; not so much flying upwards, says Philo, as being dragged down again to the lowest depths of hell. But happy are they who do not draw back. From the same author. Ibid. Before now, some persons who have tasted happiness, being very speedily satiated, after they have given hopes of their being in health, have fallen back into the same disease as before.

From the same author, out of the Questions arising in Genesis. P. 784. D. To commit perjury is impious and mischievous. About good friends. The words of Philo, out of the first book of the Questions arising in Exodus. P. 788. I. We ought to look upon those men as our friends -who are inclined to assist us, and to requite our kindnesses with kindness, even if they are destitute of power ; for friendship is a thing which is seen more in moments of necessity, than in a steady conjunction or union of dispositions. So that in the case of each person who unites with another in an association of friendship, one may apply the expression of Pythagoras to him, and say, " A friend is a second I." About the mercies of God. The words of Philo, out of the first book of the Questions arising in Exodus. P. 789. A.

When the fruits of these crops which are raised from seed are in a state of perfection, they receive the beginnings of the generation of trees in order that the mercies of God may last for ever, and then that one continually succeeding the other, and connecting ends with beginnings and beginnings with ends, they may be in reality never ending. From the second book of the same treatise. Ibid. The mercies of God give us not only what is necessary, but also all such things as conduce to a more excessive and liberal enjoyment of life.

About man : to show that God when he made him endowed him with free will. It is said to you, O noble man, who live in obedience to the divine precepts, endeavour with all thy might not only to preserve the gifts which you have received unimpaired and unalloyed, but also think them worthy of all imaginable honour and regard, as being endowed with free will and independent power, so that he who has committed them to your charge may have no reason to find fault with you for having neglected to take proper care of them ; and the Creator of the world has entrusted to your care to employ them according to your own deliberative purpose, a soul, and speech, and the outward senses.

Therefore, those men who receive these gifts in a proper spirit, and who preserve them for him who has bestowed them on them, have kept their intellect carefully in such a way that it shall never think of anything else than of God and his virtues; and their speech in such a manner that with unwearied mouth it shall honour the Father of the universe with praises and hymns ; and their outward senses in such a way that after they have represented to themselves the whole of the world which is perceptible to those senses, namely, the heaven and the earth, and the natures which are between those two, they may relate what they have seen in a pure and guileless manner to the soul. About people who are governed. The words of Philo, from the fourth book of hia Allegorical Interpretation of the Sacred Laws. If you take away their resources of wealth from politicians, you will find nothing left but empty arrogance devoid of sense, for as long as there is an abundant supply of external good things, wisdom and presence of mind appear also to attend them, but when that plenty is taken away all appearance of wisdom is taken away at the same time. About the best men.

From the same author, in his Treatise on Drunkenness. Good men, to speak somewhat metaphorically, are of more value than whole nations, since they support cities and constitutions as buttresses support large houses. From the same author. If it depended on wicked men, no city would ever enjoy tranquillity ; but states continue free from seditious troubles on account of the righteousness of one or two men who live in them, whose virtue is a remedy for the diseases of war, because God, who loves mankind, grants this effect as a reward to those who are virtuous and honourable, so that they should not only benefit themselves, but all who are near them. From the same author. There is no place upon earth more sacred than the mind of a wise man, while all the virtues hover around like so many stars. About things which are uncertain and unknown to us. The words of Philo. The comprehension of the future does not belong to the nature of man. From the same author. All things are not known to the mortal race.. From the same author. God alone is acquainted with the ultimate results of things. About evil report. Quiet, which is free from danger, is better than words the object of which is only to give pleasure.

About self-satisfied people, <&c. The words of Philo. The lawgiver says, " You shall not do all the things which we will do here this day,* every one doing that which is pleasant in his own sight," by which words he declares as loudly as possible that there is no evil which may not be produced by selfishness and self-sufficiency, which must be eradicated from the mind as unholy feelings. Let no one embrace that which is pleasing to himself rather than that which is agreeable to nature, for the one is found to be the cause of mischief and the other the cause of benefit. From the same author.

Those who do everything for their own sake alone practise selfishness, which is the greatest of evils, which produces unsociability, want of fellowship, unfriendliness, injustice, impiety, for nature has made man not like those beasts which love solitude, but like the gregarious beasts which live together like the most sociable of all creatures, that he may live not to himself alone, but also to his father, and to his mother, and to his brethren, and to his wife, and to his children, and to all his other relations and friends, and to those of the same borough as himself, and to those of the same tribe, and to S 2 his native country, and to his fellow countrymen, and to all mankind, and moreover to the different parts of the universe, and to the whole world, and much more to the Father and Creator of the world, for he must be (if at least he is really endowed with reason) sociable, loving the world, and loving God, that he may also be beloved by God. About God being incomprehensible. From the first book of the Questions arising in Exodus. There are thousands and thousands, I do not say only of important matters, but also of those which appear to be most trivial, which escape the human intellect.

From the same author. No one may so far yield to unreasonable folly as to boast that he has seen the invisible God. About the doctrine that God has made angels to be guardia7is of us. The words of Philo, from the first book of the Questions arising in Genesis. As pillars support whole houses, so also do the divine powers support the whole world, and that most excellent and Godloving race of mankind. About avoiding sin. From the treatise on the Giants. I think it absolutely impossible that no part of the soul should become tainted, not even the outermost and lowest parts of it, even if the man appears to be perfect among men. About slowness of counsel. Slow counsel is profitless, and change of purpose in extremities is mischievous. About heretical teachers, <&c. From the same book.

A teacher of a good and virtuous disposition, even if he sees his pupils at first stiff-necked by nature, does not despair of producing in them a change for the better ; but, like a good physician, he does not apply a remedy at once at the first moment of the disease attacking the patient, but he gives nature time that it may recede a little, so that he may first make ready the path to safety, and then apply healthful and salutary remedies. And in the same manner does the virtuous man apply the arguments and doctrines of philosophy.

If, when a pupil is first introduced to you, and first comes to learn of you, you hasten to eradicate all his ignorance at once, and attempt to introduce every kind of knowledge in a lump, you will produce the contrary effect to that which you desire, for it will not be likely that such an eradication, having taken place all in a moment, will continue effectual, nor that the pupil will be able at once to contain such an abundant influx and overflow of instruction ; but being exceedingly perplexed and troubled, he will resist both these operations, that of eradicating one thing and that of introducing another ; but the system of taking away his ignorance with gentleness and moderation, and of, in the same manner, gently instilling wisdom into the mind, will be the causes of admitted advantage. About people ivho meditate and design mischief. The words of Philo, from bis treatise on Things Improperly Named. The ordinary production of wickedness enslaves the mind, even if it has not as yet produced any perfect fruit ; for it is, as the proverb says, washing a brick, or taking up water in a net, to try and eradicate wickedness out of the soul of man.

For " behold," says Moses, " with what designs the minds of all men are impressed."* And he speaks truly, for he does not say, what designs are attached to and adapted to it, but that which has been considered with care and deliberation is also explained with accuracy, and this too not slowly and with difficulty, but from man's earliest youth, or as one may almost say, from his very cradle, as if it were a part of him, kept in continual exercise. About cowardly and wavering people. Those who are unmanly from an innate effeminacy, falling down of their own accord before they meet with any opposition, are a disgrace and ridicule to themselves. From the same author. "Wickedness in a foolish man has a twin offspring, for the foolish man is wavering and hesitating, mingling considerations together which ought not to be mingled, and jumbling and confusing what ought to be kept distinct, having as manycolours in his soul as a viper has in his body, and polluting even his sound thoughts with those which cause trouble and death. From the same author.

The thoughts of a bad man are one thing, and his words another, and his actions indeed are many, but they are all inconsistent and at variance one with another, for he does not say what he thinks, and he has decided on the contrary of what he affirms, and he does things which are not consistent with his original designs, so that, to speak truly, one may say that the life of the wicked man is a life of enmity. About distinctness. The words of Philo. That which is not distinct is unsuited to a free man, beins the most shameful product of folly and haughtiness ; for as distinctness in everything that is to be done is a mai'k of acuteness and wisdom, and deserves honour and praise, so also an absence of shame is a sign of folly and infamy, on which account the other definition which you disregard, classifies a man who is afflicted with this disease thus, saying, he is impious who does not know how to respect the face of an honourable man, nor to rise up in the presence of an elder,* nor to guide his own steps in the right way. About those who serve God.

The servants of virtuous men submit to voluntary obedience to God, for they are not servants to human caprices, but to wise men ; and he who is the servant of wisdom may justly be said to be also the servant of God. About just men. The words of Philo. An irreconcileable and endless war is canied on by the Crodebant hoc grande nefas, et morte plandum, Si juvenis vetulo non assurrexerat ; et si Barbato cuicumque puer. atheists against the godly, so that they threaten them even with slavery. About justice. The words of Philo. Justice, ahove all things, conduces to the safety both of mankind and of the parts of the world, earth and heaven. About the judgments of God. From the same author. It is good to begin every day with divine and holy employments, and after that to proceed to the necessary duties of life. On this account God has commanded us* to take care to obey his commandments, and especially at the first moment of the dawn, as soon as we are risen, to pay our adoration to Him, that their offerings to God may precede every human occupation, having the recollection of God for their prompter and leader. From the same author.

Every soul which piety fertilises with its own mysteries is necessarily awake for all holy services, and eager for the contemplation of those things which are worth being seen, for this is the feeling of the soul at the great festival, and this is the true season of joy. About the difference between God and man. The words of Philo. The things of creation are far removed from the uncreated God, even though they are brought into close proximity following the attractive mercies of the Saviour. About bold and brave men. The words of Philo, from his treatise about the Giants. It is a sign of courage not to be easily alarmed by tho terrors of death, and to" be full of cheerful confidence in dangers, and to be of valiant hardiness amid disasters, and to prefer dying with honour to being saved disgracefully, and to wish to be the cause of victory ; and a happy boldness, and a cheerfulness of soul, and fortitude, are the atttendants on a manly spirit. 36'i PHILO JUD^EUS. About equality. The words of Philo. As an equality of measurement is the cause of the most perfect blessings, so also a want of measure is the cause of the greatest evils, as it dissolves that most useful bond of equality. About drunkenness.

From the same author. Inequality is a grievous thing and the cause of differences, just as equality is free from all annoyances and contributes to unite men for advantageous ends. From the same autnor. Obedience to the law and equality are the seeds of peace, and the causes of safety and continued durability ; but inequality and covetousness are excitements to war, and dissolvers of all existing things. About evil-doers. The words of Philo. Those things which chastise the first, are, if men are wise, preventatives of the second. About the eye and sight. The words of Philo, from the treatise about the Creation of the World. The outward senses resemble windows; for through them, as through windows, the comprehension of the objects of the outward senses enters into the mind, and again through them the mind goes out to investigate such objects. But the sight is a part of these windows, that is to say, of the outward senses, since above all others it is akin to the soul, because it is nearly connected with the most beautiful of all things, namely light, and is a servant of divine things ; and, indeed, that is the sense which first opened the way to philosophy.

For when the eye had beheld the motions of the sun and moon, and the periodical revolutions of the stars, and the unvarying motions of the whole host of heaven, and the indescribable order and harmony of the whole universe, and the one unerring Creator of the world, it then related what it had seen to reason, as having the supreme authority ; and reason, having beheld with a still more acutely piercing eye both these things, and things of a still more sublime character in their appearance and species, and the great cause of all things, it then immediately arrived at a due conception of God, and of creation, and of providence ; considering that the whole nature of all things was not brought into existence of its own accord, but that of necessity it had a creator, and a father, and a guide, and a governor, who also created it, and who also preserves everything which he has created. About contentment. The words of the same author. If you have a great deal of wealth, take care and do not be carried away by its overflow ; but endeavour to take hold of some dry ground, in order to establish your mind with proper firmness ; and this will be the proper exertion of justice and fairness.

And if you should have abundant supplies of all the things requisite for the indulgence of those passions which lie beneath the belly, be not carried away by such plenty, but oppose to them a saving degree of contentedness, taking in this way dry ground to stand upon instead of an absorbing quicksand. By the same author. One should practise being contented with a little, for this is being near God ; but the contrary habit is being very far from him. About faith in and piety towards God. The words of Philo. What can be a real sacrifice except the piety of a soul devoted to the love of God ? whose grateful feelings are made immortal by God, having conferred on them an immortal duration like that of the sun and the moon, and the whole world. About wicked and impious men. From the same author. The hopes of wicked men are unstable, as they expect a good fate, but suffer a contrary destiny of which they arc worthy. About a bad conscience. The words of Philo, from his treatise on Men and Things which are Improperly Named. Who is there who does wrong who is not convicted by his own conscience as if he were in a court of justice, even though no man correct him ?

About advisers. The words of Philo, from the Questions in Genesis. Since the mind of those who have not studied philosophy is blind with respect to many of the circumstances of life, one must take those who do see the character of affairs for one's guides. About hasty talkers. The words of Philo. He who has not shame or fear for his companions, has an unbridled mouth and a licentious tongue. Jol Aboiit perfection. The words of Philo. Perfection and an absence of deficiency are found in God alone. But deficiency and imperfection exist in every man. For man is taught, even if he be the wisest of his race, by some other man, and he knows nothing without being taught by his own nature. And if one man has more knowledge than another, still he has it not naturally, but because of instruction which he has received. About those who think lowlily of themselves. The words of Philo. These things are proved to be most completely natural, that the descent of the soul is its elation by means of self-conceit, and that its ascent and elevation is its return from arrogance. From the same author.

It is desirable to eradicate self-conceit, which is the friend of endurance, and prudence, and justice,* and also to destroy overbearing pride ; for it is no small proof and exercise of folly to study virtue in an illegitimate manner. From the same author. If you are puffed up by glory and authority so as to desire great things, then remember, like the skilful pilot of a ship, to sentence. take in your sails, that you may not be carried away into absurd conduct. About sleep. The words of Philo. Sleep, according to the prophet, is a trance, not indeed in accordance with insanity, but proceeding from a relaxation of the outward senses and the retreat of reason ; for at that time the outward senses cease from attaching themselves to their proper objects, and the mind is quiet, neither being any longer under the influence nor affording any motion to them, and they, being in consequence cut off from any energy because they are separated from the objects which are perceptible to them, are dissolved in a state of motionless inactivity. From the same author.

Very naturally some who have been wise enough to arrive at correct notions of the truth, have described sleep as a thing to teach us to meditate upon death, and a shadow and outline of the resurrection which is hereafter to follow, for it bears in itself visible images of both conditions, for it removes the same man from his state of perfection and brings him back to it. About promises, <&c. The words of Philo. It is better absolutely never to make any promise at all than not to assist another willingly, for no blame attaches to the one, but great dislike on the part of those who are less powerful, and intense hatred and long enduring punishment from those who are more powerful, is the result of the other line of conduct. About haughty men, <£c. From the first book of the Sacred Allegory of the Holy Laws. Some persons say that the last thing which the wise man puts off is the tunic of vain glory, for even if a man gets the mastery over his other passions, still he is inclined by nature to be influenced by glory and the praises of the multitude. From the same author. Self-conceit is an impure thing by nature. About promises, &c. The words of Philo.

To give thanks to God is intrinsically right, but not to do so to him in the first place, and not to begin with the first reasoris for gratitude, is blameable, for it is not right to give the chief honour to the creation, and the inferior honour to God, who is the giver of all things in the creation ; and indeed that is a most culpable division, inasmuch as it is laying down a certaiu disorder of order. About envtj. The words of Philo. Envy naturally attaches itself to whatever is great. About industrious people. The words of the same author. The most perfect and greatest of all good things are usually the result of laborious exercise and energetic vigorous labour From the same author. It is absurd for a man who is in the pursuit of honours to flee from labours by which honours are acquired. About the soul and the mind. From the same author.

"What is the meaning of the expression, "You shall not eat the flesh in the blood of the soul?"* God appears by this expression to intend to show that the blood is the essence of the soul, that is to say, of the soul endowed with the outward senses, not the soul spoken of in the most excellent sense of the word, that is to say, as far as it is endued with reason and intellect ; for there are three divisions of the soul, one part being nutritious, a second being endued with the outward senses, and the third being endued with reason.

Accordingly the divine Spirit is the essence of the rational portion, according to the sacred historian of the creation of the world, for he says that "God breathed into his face the breath of life."f But of that part which is endued with the outward, senses, and which has the revivifying power, blood is the essence, for he says in another place that " the soul of all flesh is the blood ;"£ but what is connected with the flesh is the outward sense and the passions, and not the mind and the intellect; not but what that expression, " in the blood of the soul," also indicates that the soul is one thing and the body another. So that in real truth the breath is the essence of the soul, but it has not any place of itself independently of the blood, but it resembles and is combined with blood. About the assistance of God. The words of Philo, from the fourth book of his treatise on the Allegories contained in the Sacred Laws. The extremity of happiness is the assistance of God, for there can be no such thing as want when God gives his aid. About the creation of the world. From the same author, from the first book of the Questions arising in Genesis.

It is impossible that the harmony, and arrangement, and reason, and analogy, and that all the great accord and real happiness which we see existing in the world can have been originated by themselves, for it follows inevitably that these things must have had a creator, and a father, and a regulator and governor, who generated them in the first place, and who now preserves what he has generated. About the church of God. From the same author. God wishing to send down from heaven to the earth an image of his divine virtue, out of his compassion for our race, that it might not be destitute of a more excellent portion, and that he might thus wash off the pollutions which defile our miserable existence, so full of all dishonour, established his church among us. Bbout seeking God. From the same author, from the last book of the Questions arising in Exodus The one most powerful relaxation of the soul leads to the sacred love of the one living God, teaching mankind to take God as its guide in all their plans, and words, and actions. From the same author. The extremity of happiness is to rest uucnangeaDiy and immovably on God alone. About the last day.

The words of Philo, from the second book of the Questions arising in Exodus. The stars are turned round and revolve in a regular circle, some proceeding on in the same manner through the whole heaven, and others have special eccentric motions of their own. About the detestation of wickedness felt by God. The words of Philo, from the second book of the Questions arising in Exodus. Some men think that repentance appears at times to take possession of God on account of the oaths which he has sworn, but they do not form correct notions ; for apart from the fact that the Deity does not change, neither the expression, " God repented," nor that, " And it grieved him at the heart,"* is indicative of repentance, for the Deity is unchangeable ; but they only show the character of the pure intellect which is now deeply meditating on the cause for which he created man upon the earth. By the same author, from the same book.

There is no hesitation and no envy in God ; but he often uses expressions indicative of hesitation or of uncertainty from a reference to man, who is susceptible of such feelings ; for as I have often said, there are altogether two supreme sources ; in the one case God does not speak as man speaks, in the other he instructs man as a man instructs his son, the former being a sign of his power, the second of the way in which he teaches and guides man. A bout promises. The words of Philo, from the la3t book of the Questions arising in Exodus.

He who does not offer to God first fruits of his own free will does not really offer first fruits at all, even if he brings everything which is great, with a most royal abundance of treasure ; for the real first fruits consist not in the things offered, but in the pious disposition of him who offers them. About the mildness of God and his love for mankind. The words of Philo, from the Questions arising in Exodus. The mercies of God do always outstrip justice, for the work which he has chosen for himself is that of doing good, and the task of punishing follows that ; and it is common, when great evils are about to arise, for an abundance of great and numerous blessings to happen first.

Ser. I. The virtues alone know how to regulate the affairs of men. The contemplation of virtue is exceedingly beautiful, and actions according to it, and the exercise of it, are desirable above all things. Ser. II. If you wish to have a good reputation in a twofold manner, then honour exceedingly those who are doing well, and reprove those who are doing ill. Ser. VIII. When you are entreated to pardon offences, pardon willingly those who have offended against you, because indulgence given in requital for indulgence, and reconciliation with our fellow servants, is a means of averting the divine anger. Ser. IX. The virtuous man is a lover of his race, and he is merciful and inclined to pardon, and never bears ill will towards any man whatever, but thinks it right to surpass in doing good rather than in injuring. Ibid. What is beautiful is then beautiful, when a man has no need of the assistance of another, but when he contains in himself all the signs of excellence as his own. Ser. X. It is well that the worse should always follow the better, on account of the hope of improvement. Ser. XI.

One ought to call a city, and a country, and a house, happy, when they contain a virtuous man : and one ought to call those miserable, when they have no such man within them. Ser. XVI. Those who are tyrannical in their natures, but without power, make their designs succeed by treachery. Ser. XX. The friendships of the wicked are mischievous, and very often the soul of such men, being influenced by such associations, takes the impressions of downright insanity. It is not the country which makes men bad, or the city which makes them good, but the habits of living with such and such men. Ser. XXVIII. . One need not dread the blow of a weak man, nor the threat of a fool. Light-minded men, like empty vessels, may easily be taken and moved by their ears. Ser. XXX. Nothing that is done can be beautiful without scientific contemplation, for knowledge is the offspring of counsel, but folly is the source of all evils. Every argument on behalf of justice is superfluous, when those who listen are unanimous in a bad object. Ser. XXXVIII.

The wicked man disturbs the city, and is eager for the confusion and the disorder of all men and all things within the city; for a desire of interference, and covetousness, and the acts of a demagogue, and the influence with the populace, are looked upon as honours by such a man, and quiet he looks upon with disdain. Excellence is a thing difficult to find, or rather is absolutely uudiscoverable in a troubled life. Ser. XLIII. There is nothing so calculated to cause good will as kind words, on account of good actions. Ser. XL VII. It is sufficient not to bear witness one's self, but that which stands in need of the advocacy of another is inadequate to bring conciliation to the mind. Ser. LII. Reject with aversion the deceitful words of flatterers, for they, obscuring reason, do not contribute to the truth of things ; for either they praise actions which are deserving of blame, or else they often blame things beyond all praise. Ser. LVI. Peace is the greatest blessing which no man is able to afford, since this is a divine action. Ser. LVII.

Behave to your servants in the same manner in which you desire that God should behave to you ; for as we hear them we shall be heard by him, and as we regard them we shall be regarded by him. Let us therefore let our compassion outrun compassion, that we may receive a like requital from him for our mercy to them. Ser. LXIX. How great a relief of nature is sleep, it is the image of death, and the rest of the outward senses. Sleep is one thing only, but the desire of it has many reasons and causes ; I mean from nature, from food, from fate, and perhaps also from excessive and intense fasting, by means of which the flesh, becoming unnerved and deprived of strength, wishes to recover itself for subsequent actions by means of sleep. As much drinking is called a habit, so is much sleep, and it is difficult to get rid of an inveterate habit. Ser. LXXIV. Pardon is apt to engender repentance. Ser. LXXIX. Shamelessness is the characteristic of a worthless man, and modesty of a virtuous man, but never to feel either ashamed or bold is a mark of one who is slow of comprehension, and who is without the power of giving assent. Ser. LXXXII.

Since God penetrates invisibly in the region of the soul, let us prepare that region in the best manner that we are able to. or rather that it may be a habitation fit for God, otherwise, without our being aware of it, God will depart and remove to some other abode. The mind of a wise man is the house of God, and he is called, in an especial manner, the God of all mankind, as the prophet says when speaking of the mind of a wise man, he calls it " that in which God walks,"* as in a palace. What is visible and actually before us is comprehended by the eyes, but the pure faculty of reason extends even to what is unseen and future. Ser. LXXXVIT. God who is merciful by nature will never exonerate from guilt the man who swears falsely for an unrighteous object, as such a man is impure and defiled, even though he may escape the punishments inflicted by men. Ser. XCIX. Those things which are kept in the dark for a while by envy, are at last released and brought to light. Ser. CIV.

In his essential character a king is equal to every man, but in the power of his authority and rank he is equal to God who ruleth over all things ; for there is nothing on earth that is higher than he. Therefore it becomes him as being a mortal not to be too much elated, and as being a kind of God not to yield too much to passion ; for if he is honoured as being of the likeness of God, nevertheless he is in some degree entangled in terrestrial and vile dust, by means of which he should learn simolicity and meekness towards all men. Ser. CXVI. A severe master is best for untractable and foolish servauts ; for they, fearing his threats aud punishments, though against their will, are made to do right by fear. Ser. CXVIII. It is the greatest praise of a servant to neglect nothing which his master commands, but to attempt with an honest heart to perform in a proper and successful manner, even if it be beyond his power, all that is commanded him with energy and without hesitation. Ser.

CXXIII. ' When once the wife of Philo was asked in an assembly of many women why she alone of all her sex did not wear any golden ornaments, she replied : " The virtue of a husband is a sufficient ornament for his wife." Ser. CXXX. The virtues of children are the glory of their fathers. Those who are well acquainted with what is honourable and virtuous, are happy in their children. Ser. CXXXV. To drink poison out of a golden goblet, and to take advice from a foolish friend, is the same thing. New vessels are better than old ones, but old friendship is better than new. The fruits produced by the earth come once a year ; but those which we derive from friendship are to be gathered on every occasion. Many men select for their friends not those who are the most virtuous, but those who are rich. Many who appear to be friends are not so, and many who do not appear to be such are so in reality; but it is the part of a wise man to discern both these classes. Ser. CLII. Youth which is not willing to work is laying up misfortunes for old age. Ser. CLVI. What is bad is, not being punished here, but being worthy of punishment hereafter.

Ser. CXXXV. God has implanted hope in the human race that, having a comfort innate in them, those who have committed errors which are not irremediable may feel their sorrows lightened. T 2 Ser. CLXXXII. Pleasure appears to be an equable kind of motion, but in reality it botb is and is found to be rougb. The following Fragments are from an Anonymous Collection in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Extracts from Philo. About friends. A steadiness towards one's friends is a sign of a general stability of disposition, on wbicb account one ought not to form friendship till one has carefully tested the characters of those with whom he proposes to form it ; for not only is the forming of such friendship pleasant, but so also is the feeling that one has not to bear by one's self burdens which oppress the soul, and not to depart from the association ; for he who is the cause of differences in friendship is not known to the generality of men, but he is accustomed to bring common blame upon both parties, and very commonly on the innocent party more than on the guilty one.

Of secret things, you may share with mean persons those which increase your virtue ; but as to those which deteriorate your mind, you must not pursue them, yourself, nor impute them to your friends. The life of man is like a sea, it is liable to every description of agitation and change, even in the height of prosperity ; for nothing earth-born is firmly established, but all such things are carried about to and fro, like a vessel which is driven about in the sea by contrary winds. About sin. Let us fear not the diseases which come upon us from without, but those offences on which account diseases come, diseases of the soul rather than of the body. About pain. Every foolish man is in a strait, being oppressed by covetousness, and love of glory, and desire of pleasure, and things of that sort, which do not allow the mind freedom of motion. About gluttony.

The sons of the physicians have laid it down as a maxim that regularity is the parent of a healthy condition of the body, paying but little attention to the health of the soul ; but we lay it down that regularity is not only destructive of all diseases of the body, but much more do we recognise the fact that the truest health is that which destroys the passions which injure the soul. About custom and familiarity. An inveterate habit is more powerful than nature, and little things, if they are not hindered, grow up and increase and become of a large size. The following Fragments are from an Unpublished Manuscript in the Library of the French King. From the works of the Hebrew Philo, on Genesis vi. 7. Why is it that God, when he threatens to extirpate mankind, does also destroy the irrational animals ? Because the irrational animals were not originally created designedly for their own sakes, but for the sake of man, and to perform services of which he might be in need ; and when man was destroyed it followed naturally that they should also be destroyed at the same time, when the beings for whose sake they had been created were no longer in existence. From the same author, on Genesis xvii. 14.

The law does not treat any action done involuntarily as guilty, since it even pardons a man who has committed murder unintentionally ; but if a child is not circumcised eight days after its birth, what evil has it done so as to be subjected to the punishment of death? Therefore some persons say that the manner of the punishment is to be referred to its parents, and think that they ought to be punished severely as having neglected the commandments of the law ; and others think that it is by an excess of indignation that God is here represented as inflicting punishment, as far as appearance goes, on the child, in order that this inevitable punishment may be inflicted on those people of mature age who have violated the law. Not because the action of circumcision is important in itself, but because if that is neglected the covenant itself is treated with eontempt when the seal by which it is recognised and ratified is not made perfect. From the same author, on Genesis xix. 23. Why did the sun go forth upon the land when Lot entered into Segor? And he says the very same place is a safety for those who are making progress, and a punishment to those who are inwardly wicked.

And again the moment that the sun rises in the beginning of the day it brings with it justice ; wishing to show that the sun, and the day, and the light, and everything else in the world which is beautiful and honourable, are given only to the virtuous and to no worthless man who embraces incurable wickedness. From the same author, on Genesis xxvii. 24 — 27. Having been spies rather than friends under truce, and being prepared for either alternative ; for war if they saw that the other was weak, and for peace if they found him stronger than themselves. From the same author, on Genesis xxvi. 28, &c. These are the covenants which they made, not to be destroyed as the other nations had been, and the Philistines were at a subsequent period by the Israelites ; whom the holy scriptures call sometimes Canaanites, and sometimes Cappadocians ; but afterwards the Cappadocians emigrated. From the same author, on Genesis xxvi. 30. Not on account of praise, for the wise man is not attracted by flattery or by any other kind of subserviency, but because he has accepted their repentance. From the same author, on Genesis xxvii. 6, &c.

When he had two sons, the one good and the other guilty, he says that he will bless the guilty one, not becausehe preferred him to the good one, but because he knew that the other one could do right by himself, but that the other was convicted by his own disposition, and had no hope whatever of salvation except in the prayers of his father ; and if he did not obtain them, then he would be the most miserable of all men. From the same author, on Genesis xxvii. 11, &c.

It is proper here to admire also the good will of his mother, who confessed herself willing to take upon herself the cause for his sake, in order that her son might have the honour to which the two were entitled, for she is carried away by her affection for both of them ; for she had feared his father, lest she should be looked upon as imposing on him, and to be filching away the honour to which the other was entitled ; and his mother, lest he should be considered by her as disobedient to her when she urged him vehemently ; on which account he says, with great prudence and propriety, Will not my father curse me ? and I shall be bringing a curse on myself. He had confidence because of the promise of God, which said, " The elder shall serve the younger." But, on the other hand, he feared as a man, lest the blessing of his father, as a just man, should overturn the assertion of God. From the same author, on Genesis xxvii. 30.

He is not so indignant at his disappointment in not obtaining the blessings, as at the fact of his brother having been thought worthy of them ; for being of an envious disposition, he regarded his want of success as more desirable than even his own advantage, and he shows this by his great and bitter lamentations, and by his subsequent exclamation, " Bless me now also, 0 my father." From the same author. But if he obtained it by fraud, a man will be inclined to say, he was not to be praised. What then does his father say ? " And he shall be blessed."

But he appears by what he here says to intimate, in an enigmatical and obscure manner, that it does not follow that every stratagem is blameable, since guardians of the night when they lie in wait for robbers, and generals when they form ambuscades for enemies whom they would not be able to subdue by open force, appear to act rightly : and what are called stratagems proceed on the same principle as the contests of wrestlers, for in these cases too tricks are accounted honourable ; and those who by trickery get the better of their antagonists are thought worthy of the prize, and of the crown of victory ; so that it is not a charge against a man to say, he has done a thing by trick, but it is rather a panegyric, being equivalent to saying, he has done it skilfully, for the virtuous man does not do anything unskilfully. From the same author, on Exodus xx. 25. What is the meaning of " thy dagger," and what comes next ?

Those who by their nature venture to make improper attempts, and who by their own private endeavours metamorphose the works of nature, defile what ought not to be defiled, for all the things of nature are perfect and complete, and stand in need of no addition. From the same author, on Exodus xxii. 19. He shows most evidently that he is a proselyte, inasmuch as he is not circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin, but in the pleasures and appetites, and all the other passions of the soul ; for the Hebrew race was not circumcised in Egypt, but being ill-treated with every imaginable circumstance of ill-treatment by the natural cruelty of the natives of the country to strangers, it nevertheless lived among them with fortitude and patience, and that not more from compulsion than voluntarily, because of the refuge which it possessed in God the saviour, who, sending down his beneficent power, delivered his suppliants from their difficult and apparently inextricable troubles. On this account Moses adds, " For you know the soul of a proselyte."* Now what is the mind of a proselyte ? a forsaking of the opinions of the worshippers of many gods, and a unioa with those who honour the one God, the Father of the universe.

In the second place, some persons call foreigners also proselytes, and those are strangers who have come over to the truth in the same manner with those who have been sojourners in Egypt ; for the one are strangers newly arrived in the country, but the last are strangers also to the customs and laws, but the common name of proselytes is given to both. From the same author, on Exodus xxii. 22. It is forbidden to injure a widow and orphan, for these are under the protection of the especial providence of God, since they are deprived of their natural protectors and guardians, for God wills that those who enjoy natural associations should make amends to the others from their own abundance of resources. From the same author, on Exodus xxiii. 1. He says that we must not approach folly or falsehood, either with the ears or with any other of the outward senses, for great injuries are the result of being deceived ; on which account some lawgivers have forbidden any one to give hearsay evidence, since the truth is confirmed by eyesight, but falsehood by hearing. From the same author, on Exodus xxiii. 6.

Poverty by itself claims compassion, in order to correct its deficiencies, but when it comes to judgment, it then has for the arbitrator the law of equity, for justice is a divine and incorruptible thing, on which account it is expressly affirmed in another passage that the judgment of God is just.* From the same author, on Exodus xxiii. 18. Instead of saying leavened bread must not come among the things which are offered, but all things which are brought as a sacrifice or an offering must be unleavened, he intimates two most necessaiy things by an obscure and symbolical expression ; one being to despise pleasure, for leaven is the seasoning of food and not food itself ; and the other being that it is not right for men to be elated, because of being puffed up by vain self-conceit ; for each is a wicked state, and pleasure and selfconceit are both the offspring of one mother, deceit. The blood of the sacrifices is a proof of a soul making its offerings to God ; and it is not in accordance with the divine law that things which will not unite should be mingled together. From the same author, on Exodus xxiii. 20.