Zhuangzi

"These men," replied Confucius, "travel beyond the rule of life. I travel within it. Consequently, our paths do not meet; and I was wrong in sending you to mourn. They consider themselves as one with God, recognising no distinctions between human and divine. They look on life as a huge tumour from which death sets them free. All the same they know not where they were before birth, nor where they will be after death. Though admitting different elements, they take their stand upon the unity of all things. They ignore their passions. They take no count of their ears and eyes. Backwards and forwards through all eternity, they do not admit a beginning or end. They stroll beyond the dust and dirt of mortality, to wander in the realms of inaction. How should such men trouble themselves with the conventionalities of this world, or care what people may think of them?" "But if such is the case," said Tzŭ Kung, "why should we stick to the rule?" "Heaven has condemned me to this," replied Confucius. "Nevertheless, you and I may perhaps escape from it." "By what method?" asked Tzŭ Kung.

"Fishes," replied Confucius, "are born in water. Man is born in TAO. If fishes get ponds to live in, they thrive. If man gets TAO to live in, he may live his life in peace. Without reference to the outward ceremonial of this world. Hence the saying, 'All that a fish wants is water; all that a man wants is TAO.'" It is of course by a literary coup de main that Confucius is here and elsewhere made to stand sponsor to the TAO of the rival school. "May I ask," said Tzŭ Kung, "about divine men?" "Divine men," replied Confucius, "are divine to man, but ordinary to God. Hence the saying that the meanest being in heaven would be the best on earth; and the best on earth, the meanest in heaven." "Man is a kind of very minute heaven. God is the grand man." - Swedenborg. Yen Hui said to Confucius, "When Mêng Sun Ts'ai's mother died, he wept, but without snivelling; Which the Chinese regard as the test of real sorrow. he grieved but his grief was not heartfelt; he wore mourning but without howling. Yet although wanting in these three points, he is considered the best mourner in the State of Lu. Surely this is the name and not the reality. I am astonished at it."

"Mêng Sun," said Confucius, "did all that was required. He has made an advance towards wisdom. Towards TAO, wherein there is no weeping nor gnashing of teeth. He could not do less; Than mourn outwardly, for fear of committing a breach of social etiquette, in harmony if not in accordance with which the true Sage passes his life. while all the time actually doing less. As seen from the absence of those signs which prove inward grief. "Mêng Sun knows not whence we come nor whither we go. He knows not whether the end will come early or late. Passing into life as a man, he quietly awaits his passage into the unknown. What should the dead know of the living, or the living know of the dead? Even you and I may be in a dream from which we have not yet awaked. "Then again, he adapts himself physically, To the ceremonial of the body. while avoiding injury to his higher self. Keeping his soul free from the disturbance of passion. He regards a dying man simply as one who is going home. He sees others weep, and he naturally weeps too.

"Besides, a man's personality is something of which he is subjectively conscious. It is impossible for him to say if he is really that which he is conscious of being. You dream you are a bird, and soar to heaven. You dream you are a fish, and dive into the ocean's depths. And you cannot tell whether the man now speaking is awake or in a dream. "A pleasurable sensation precedes the smile it evokes. The smile itself is not dependent upon a reminding nudge. And just so was Mêng Sun's outward expression of grief, - spontaneous, as being in harmony with his surroundings. Resign yourself, To your mortal environment. unconscious of all changes, Of life into death, etc. and you shall enter into the pure, the divine, the ONE." I Erh Tzŭ went to see Hsü Yu. The latter asked him, saying, "How has Yao benefited you?" "He bade me," replied the former, "practise charity and do my duty, and distinguish clearly between right and wrong." "Then what do you want here?" said Hsü Yu. "If Yao has already branded you with charity and duty, and cut off your nose with right and wrong, what do you do in this free-and-easy, care-for-nobody, topsy-turvy neighbourhood?" Of TAO. "Nevertheless," replied I Erh Tzŭ, "I should like to be on its confines."

"If a man has lost his eyes," retorted Hsü Yu, "it is impossible for him to join in the appreciation of beauty. A man with a film over his eyes cannot tell a blue sacrificial robe from a yellow one." "Wu Chuang's disregard of her beauty," answered I Erh Tzŭ, "Chü Liang's disregard of his strength, the Yellow Emperor's abandonment of wisdom, - all these were brought about by a process of filing and hammering. And how do you know but that God would rid me of my brands, and give me a new nose, and make me fit to become a disciple of yourself?" "Ah!" replied Hsü Yu, "that cannot be known. But I will just give you an outline. The Master I serve succours all things, and does not account it duty. He continues his blessings through countless generations, and does not account it charity. Dating back to the remotest antiquity, he does not account himself old. Covering heaven, supporting earth, and fashioning the various forms of things, he does not account himself skilled. He it is whom you should seek." And he is TAO. "I am getting on," observed Yen Hui to Confucius. The most famous of all the disciples of Confucius, admitted by the latter to have been as near perfection as possible. "How so?" asked the latter.

"I have got rid of charity and duty," replied the former. "Very good," replied Confucius, "but not perfect." Another day Yen Hui met Confucius and said, "I am getting on." "How so?" asked Confucius. "I have got rid of ceremonial and music," answered Yen Hui. "Very good," said Confucius, "but not perfect." On a third occasion Yen Hui met Confucius and said, "I am getting on." "How so?" asked the Sage. "I have got rid of everything," replied Yen Hui. "Got rid of everything!" said Confucius eagerly. "What do you mean by that?" "I have freed myself from my body," answered Yen Hui. "I have discarded my reasoning powers. And by thus getting rid of body and mind, I have become ONE with the Infinite. This is what I mean by getting rid of everything." "If you have become ONE," cried Confucius, "there can be no room for bias. If you have passed into space, you are indeed without beginning or end. And if you have really attained to this, I trust to be allowed to follow in your steps." Tzŭ Yü and Tzŭ Sang were friends. Once when it had rained for ten days, Tzŭ Yü said, "Tzŭ Sang is dangerously ill." So he packed up some food and went to see him.

In accordance with the exigencies of mortality. How Tzŭ Yü knew that his friend was ill is not clear. An attempt has been made by one commentator on the basis of animal magnetism, in which the Chinese have believed for centuries. Arriving at the door, he heard something between singing and lamentation, accompanied with the sound of music, as follows: - "O father! O mother! O Heaven! O Man!" These words seemed to be uttered with a great effort; whereupon Tzŭ Yü went in and asked what it all meant. "I was trying to think who could have brought me to this extreme," replied Tzŭ Sang, "but I could not guess. My father and mother would hardly wish me to be poor. Heaven covers all equally. Earth supports all equally. How can they make me in particular poor? I was seeking to know who it was, but without success. Surely then I am brought to this extreme by Destiny." "The word Fate, or Destiny, expresses the sense of mankind in all ages - that the laws of the world do not always befriend, but often hurt and crush us." - Emerson.

HOW TO GOVERN. Argument: - Princes should reign, not rule - Rulers find their standards of right in themselves - They thus coerce their people into obeying artificial laws, instead of leaving them to obey natural laws - By action they accomplish nothing - By inaction there is nothing which they would not accomplish - Individuals think they know what the empire wants - In reality it is the empire itself which know best - Illustrations. Yeh Ch'üeh asked Wang I See ch. ii. four questions, none of which he could answer. Thereat the former was greatly delighted, For now he discovered that ignorance is true knowledge: - an explanation which I adopt only for want of a better. and went off and told P'u I Tzŭ. Of whom nothing definite is known. "Have you only just found that out?" said P'u I Tzŭ. "The Emperor Shun was not equal to T'ai Huang. A legendary ruler. For Shun, see ch. i. Shun was all for charity in his zeal for mankind; but although he succeeded in government, he himself never rose above the level of artificiality. Now T'ai Huang was peaceful when asleep and inactive when awake. At one time he would think himself a horse; at another, an ox. So effectually had he closed all channels leading to consciousness of self.

His wisdom was substantial and above suspicion. His virtue was genuine indeed. And yet he never sank to the level of artificiality." He was a monarch after the pattern of TAO. Chien Wu meeting the eccentric Chieh Yü, the latter enquired, saying, "What did Jih Chung Shih teach you?" Of the last nothing is known. The first two have been already mentioned in chs. i. and vi. "He taught me," replied Chien Wu, "about the laws and regulations which princes evolve, and which he said none would venture not to hear and obey." "That is a false teaching indeed," replied Chieh Yü. "To attempt to govern mankind thus, - as well try to wade through the sea, to hew a passage through a river, or make a mosquito fly away with a mountain! "The government of the truly wise man has no concern with externals. He first perfects himself, and then by virtue thereof he is enabled to accomplish what he wants. Passively, without effort of any kind. "The bird flies high to avoid snare and dart. The mouse burrows down below the hill to avoid being smoked or cut out of its nest. Is your wit below that of these two creatures?"

That you should be unable to devise means of avoiding the artificial restraints of princes. Better than coercing into goodness is letting men be good of their own accord. T'ien Kên Of whom nothing is known. was travelling on the south of the Yin mountain. He had reached the river Liao when he met a certain Sage to whom he said, "I beg to ask about the government of the empire." "Begone!" cried the Sage. "You are a low fellow, and your question is ill timed. God has just turned me out a man. That is enough for me. Borne on light pinions I can soar beyond the cardinal points, to the land of nowhere, in the domain of nothingness. And you come to worry me with government of the empire!" But T'ien Kên enquired a second time, and the Sage replied, "Resolve your mental energy into abstraction, your physical energy into inaction. Allow yourself to fall in with the natural order of phenomena, without admitting the element of self, - and the empire will be governed." By virtue of natural laws which lead, without man's interference, to the end desired.

Yang Tzŭ Chü went to see Lao Tzŭ, and said, "Suppose a man were ardent and courageous, acquainted with the order and principles of things, and untiring in the pursuit of TAO - would he be accounted a wise ruler?" "From the point of view of a truly wise man," replied Lao Tzŭ, "such a one would be a mere handicraftsman, wearing out body and mind alike. The tiger and the pard suffer from the beauty of their skins. The cleverness of the monkey, the tractability of the ox, bring them both to the tether. It is not on such grounds that a ruler may be accounted wise." "But in what, then," cried Yang Tzŭ Chü, "does the government of a wise man consist?" "The goodness of a wise ruler," answered Lao Tzŭ, "covers the whole empire, yet he himself seems to know it not. It influences all creation, yet none is conscious thereof. It appears under countless forms, bringing joy to all things. It is based upon the baseless, and travels through the realms of Nowhere." The operation of true government is invisible to the eye of man.

In the State of Chêng there was a wonderful magician, named Chi Han. He knew all about birth and death, gain and loss, misfortune and happiness, long life and short life, - predicting events to a day with supernatural accuracy. The people of Chêng used to flee at his approach; but Lieh Tzŭ See ch. i. went to see him, and became so infatuated that on his return he said to Hu Tzŭ, Who appears to have been his tutor. "I used to look upon your TAO as perfect. Now I know something more perfect still." "So far," replied Hu Tzŭ, "I have only taught you the ornamentals, not the essentials, of TAO; and yet you think you know all about it. Without cocks in your poultry-yard, what sort of eggs do the hens lay? If you go about trying to force TAO down people's throats, you will be simply exposing yourself. Bring your friend with you, and let me show myself to him." So next day Lieh Tzŭ went with Chi Han to see Hu Tzŭ, and when they came out Chi Han said, "Alas! your teacher is doomed. He cannot live. I hardly give him ten days. I am astonished at him. He is but wet ashes." And cannot burn much longer.

Lieh Tzŭ went in and wept bitterly, and told Hu Tzŭ; but the latter said, "I showed myself to him just now as the earth shows us its outward form, motionless and still, while production is all the time going on. I merely prevented him from seeing my pent-up energy Of TAO. within. Bring him again." Next day the interview took place as before; but as they were leaving Chi Han said to Lieh Tzŭ, "It is lucky for your teacher that he met me. He is better. He will recover. I saw he had recuperative power." Lieh Tzŭ went in and told Hu Tzŭ; whereupon the latter replied, "I showed myself to him just now as heaven shows itself in all its dispassionate grandeur, letting a little energy run out of my heels. He was thus able to detect that I had some. Bring him here again." Next day a third interview took place, and as they were leaving, Chi Han said to Lieh Tzŭ, "Your teacher is never one day like another. I can tell nothing from his physiognomy. Get him to be regular, and I will then examine him again."

This being repeated to Hu Tzŭ as before, the latter said, "I showed myself to him just now in a state of harmonious equilibrium. Where the whale disports itself, - is the abyss. Where water is at rest, - is the abyss. Where water is in motion, - is the abyss. The abyss has nine names. These are three of them." Alluding to three phases of TAO as manifested at the three interviews above described, TAO being the abyss. Next day the two went once more to see Hu Tzŭ; but Chi Han was unable to stand still, and in his confusion turned and fled. "Pursue him!" cried Hu Tzŭ; whereupon Lieh Tzŭ ran after him, but could not overtake him, so he returned and told Hu Tzŭ that the fugitive had disappeared. "I showed myself to him just now," said Hu Tzŭ, "as TAO appeared before time was. I was to him as a great blank, existing of itself. He knew not who I was. His face fell. He became confused. And so he fled."

Upon this Lieh Tzŭ stood convinced that he had not yet acquired any real knowledge, and at once set to work in earnest, passing three years without leaving the house. He helped his wife to cook the family dinner, and fed his pigs just like human beings. He discarded the artificial and reverted to the natural. He became merely a shape. Amidst confusion, Of this material world. he was unconfounded. And so he continued to the end. By Inaction, fame comes as the spirits of the dead come to the boy who impersonates the corpse. See ch. i. In the old funeral rites of China, a boy was made to sit speechless and motionless as a corpse, for the reason assigned in the text. By Inaction, one can become the centre of thought, the focus of responsibility, the arbiter of wisdom. Full allowance must be made for others, while remaining unmoved oneself. There must be a thorough compliance with divine principles, without any manifestation thereof. Non mihi res, sed me rebus, subjungere conar. All of which may be summed up in the one word passivity. For the perfect man employs his mind as a mirror. It grasps nothing: it refuses nothing. It receives, but does not keep. And thus he can triumph over matter, without injury to himself.

Plain English · paraphraseLieh Tzu was convinced he had not yet gained any real knowledge, so he immediately began working seriously, spending three years without leaving his house. He helped his wife prepare the family meals and fed his pigs as if they were human beings. He gave up the artificial and returned to the natural. He became just a shape. In the midst of confusion, in this material world, he remained unconfounded. And so he continued until the end. Through Inaction, fame comes to one as the spirits of the dead come to the boy who impersonates the corpse. See ch. i. In the old funeral rites of China, a boy was made to sit speechless and motionless as a corpse, for the reason given in the text. Through Inaction, one can become the center of thought, the focus of responsibility, the arbiter of wisdom. Full allowance must be made for others, while remaining unmoved oneself. There must be complete compliance with divine principles, without any outward display. "Not to things must I subject myself, but I to things." All of this can be summed up in the one word passivity. For the perfect man uses his mind like a mirror. It grasps nothing; it refuses nothing. It receives, but does not keep. And thus he can triumph over matter, without harming himself.

Without the wear and tear suffered by those who allow their activities free play. The ruler of the southern sea was called Shu. The ruler of the northern sea was called Hu. The ruler of the central zone was called Hun Tun. This term is generally used to denote the condition of matter before separation and subdivision into the phenomena of the visible universe. Shu and Hu often met on Hun Tun's territory, and being always well treated by him, determined to repay his kindness. They said, "All men have seven holes, - for seeing, hearing, eating, and breathing. Hun Tun alone has none. We will bore some for him." So every day they bored one hole; but on the seventh day Hun Tun died. Illustrating the perils of action. "The empire," says Lao Tzŭ, "is a divine trust, and may not be ruled. He who rules, ruins. He who holds by force, loses." "Men's actions," says Emerson, "are too strong for them." With this chapter Chuang Tzŭ completes the outline of his system. The remaining chapters are either supplementary to the preceding seven, or independent essays upon cognate subjects.

JOINED TOES. Argument: - Virtues should be natural, not artificial; passive not active. [Chs. viii to xiii inclusive are illustrative of, or supplementary to, ch. vii.] Joined toes and extra fingers are an addition to nature, though, functionally speaking, superfluous. Wens and tumours are an addition to the bodily form, though, as far as nature is concerned, superfluous. And similarly, to include charity and duty to one's neighbour among the functions of man's organism, is not true TAO. The whole of this chapter is a violent tirade against the leading doctrines of Confucianism. For just as joined toes are but useless lumps of flesh, and extra fingers but useless excrescences, so are any artificial additions to our internal economy but harmful adjuncts to real charity and duty to one's neighbour, Which are the outcome of TAO. and are moreover prejudicial to the right use of intelligence. People with extra keenness of vision muddle themselves over the five colours, exaggerate the value of shades, and of distinctions of greens and yellows for sacrificial robes. Of such was Li Chu. Who could see a pin's point at a distance of 1,000 li. He is mentioned by Mencius.

People with extra keenness of hearing muddle themselves over the five notes, exaggerate the tonic differences of the six pitch-pipes, and the various timbres of metal, stone, silk, and bamboo, of the Huang-chung, and of the Ta-lü. Of such was Shih K'uang. The blind musician mentioned in ch. ii. The Huang-chung and the Ta-lü were two of the twelve bamboo tubes, or pitch-pipes, on which ancient Chinese music was based. Six were male or positive, and six female or negative. Hence they are spoken of collectively as six. People who graft on charity, force themselves to display this virtue in order to gain reputation and to enjoy the applause of the world for that which is of no account. Of such were Tsêng and Shih. Tsêng Shên, a famous disciple of Confucius, and Shih Yu, both noted for their high moral characters. People who refine in argument do but pile up tiles or knot ropes in their maunderings over the hard and white, the like and the unlike, wearing themselves out over mere useless terms. Of such were Yang and Mih. Yang Chu, a philosopher of the fourth century B.C., whose "selfish" system was condemned by Mencius; and Mih Tzŭ, already mentioned in ch. ii.

Therefore every addition to or deviation from nature belongs not to the ultimate perfection of all. Which is in TAO. He who would attain to such perfection never loses sight of the natural conditions of his existence. With him the joined is not united, nor the separated apart, nor the long in excess, nor the short wanting. For just as a duck's legs, though short, cannot be lengthened without pain to the duck, and a crane's legs, though long, cannot be shortened without misery to the crane, so that which is long in man's moral nature cannot be cut off, nor that which is short be lengthened. All sorrow is thus avoided.

Intentional charity and intentional duty to one's neighbour are surely not included in our moral nature. Yet what sorrow these have involved. Divide your joined toes and you will howl: bite off your extra finger and you will scream. In one case there is too much, in the other too little; but the sorrow is the same. And the charitable of the age go about sorrowing over the ills of the age, while the non-charitable cut through the natural conditions of things in their greed after place and wealth. Surely then intentional charity and duty to one's neighbour are not included in our moral nature. Yet from the time of the Three Dynasties downwards what a fuss has been made about them! Those who cannot make perfect without arc, line, compasses, and square, injure the natural constitution of things. Those who require cords to bind and glue to stick, interfere with the natural functions of things. And those who seek to satisfy the mind of man by hampering with ceremonies and music and preaching charity and duty to one's neighbour, thereby destroy the intrinsicality of things.

For such intrinsicality does exist, in this sense: - Things which are curved require no arcs; things which are straight require no lines; things which are round require no compasses; things which are rectangular require no squares; things which stick require no glue; things which hold together require no cords. And just as all things are produced, and none can tell how they are produced, so do all things possess their own intrinsic qualities and none can tell how they possess them. From time immemorial this has always been so, without variation. Why then should charity and duty to one's neighbour be as it were glued or corded on, and introduced into the domain of TAO, to give rise to doubt among mankind? Lesser doubts change the rule of life; greater doubts change man's nature. How do we know this? By the fact that ever since the time when Shun bid for charity and duty to one's neighbour in order to secure the empire, men have devoted their lives to the pursuit thereof. Is it not then charity and duty to one's neighbour which change the nature of man?

Plain English · paraphraseIn this way, intrinsic qualities do exist: curved things don't need arcs; straight things don't need lines; round things don't need compasses; rectangular things don't need squares; things that stick don't need glue; things that hold together don't need cords. Just as all things are produced in ways no one can explain, so all things have their own qualities in ways no one can explain. From the beginning of time, this has always been true, without change. Why then should charity and duty to one's neighbor be added to the domain of TAO, as if glued or tied on, causing doubt among people? Smaller doubts change the way people live; greater doubts change human nature. How do we know this? Because since the time when Shun promoted charity and duty to one's neighbor to gain the empire, people have spent their lives chasing them. Is it not charity and duty to one's neighbor that change human nature?

Therefore I have tried to show that from the time of the Three Dynasties it has always been the external which has changed the nature of man. If a mean man, he will die for gain. If a superior man, he will die for fame. If a man of rank, he will die for his ancestral honours. If a Sage, he will die for the world. The pursuits and ambitions of these men differ, but the injury to their natures involved in the sacrifice of their lives is the same. Tsang and Ku were shepherds, both of whom lost their flocks. On inquiry, it appeared that Tsang had been engaged in reading, while Ku had gone to take part in some trials of strength. Their occupations had been different, but the result was in each case loss of the sheep. Poh I died for fame at the foot of Mount Shou-yang. See ch. vi. Robber Chê died for gain on Mount T'ai. Robber Chê has a chapter to himself, from which, though spurious, it may be gathered that he was a very remarkable personage in his day. Mount T'ai has been mentioned in ch. i.

Their deaths were not the same, but the injury to their lives and natures was in each case the same. How then can we applaud the former and blame the latter? And so, if a man dies for charity and duty to his neighbour the world calls him a noble fellow; but if he dies for gain, the world calls him a low fellow. The dying being the same, one is nevertheless called noble and the other low. But in point of injury to life and nature, the robber Chê and Poh I are one. Where then does the distinction of noble and low come in? Were a man to apply himself to charity and duty towards his neighbour until he were the equal of Tsêng or Shih, this would not be what I mean by perfection. Or to flavours, until he were the equal of Yü Erh. Probably identical with I Ya, the Soyer of China.

Plain English · paraphraseTheir deaths were not the same, but the harm done to their lives and natures was the same in each case. So how can we praise one and criticize the other? If a man dies for charity and duty to his neighbor, the world calls him noble. But if he dies for profit, the world calls him low. The act of dying is the same, yet one is called noble and the other low. But in terms of harm to life and nature, the robber Chê and Poh I are the same. So where does the difference between noble and low come from? If a man devoted himself to charity and duty to his neighbor until he was as good as Tsêng or Shih, that still would not be what I mean by perfection. Or to flavors, until he was as good as Yü Erh. Probably identical with I Ya, the Soyer of China.

Or to sounds, until he were the equal of Shih K'uang. Or to colours, until he were the equal of Li Chu. What I mean by perfection is not what is meant by charity and duty to one's neighbour. It is found in the cultivation of TAO. And those whom I regard as cultivators of TAO are not those who cultivate charity and duty to one's neighbour. They are those who yield to the natural conditions of things. What I call perfection of hearing is not hearing others but oneself. What I call perfection of vision is not seeing others but oneself. A saying attributed by Han Fei Tzŭ to Lao Tzŭ: - "To see oneself is to be clear of sight." See The Remains of Lao Tzŭ, p. 18. For a man who sees not himself but others, takes not possession of himself but of others, thus taking what others should take and not what he himself should take. Multi sunt, qui urbes, qui populos habuere in potestate, paucissimi, qui se. Instead of being himself, he in fact becomes some one else. And if a man thus becomes some one else instead of himself, this is a fatal error of which both the robber Chê and Poh I can be equally guilty.

And so, conscious of my own deficiency in regard to TAO, I do not venture at my best to practise the principles of charity and duty to my neighbour, nor at my worst to fall into the fatal error above-mentioned.

HORSES' HOOFS. Argument: - Superiority of the natural over the artificial - Application of this principle to government. Horses have hoofs to carry them over frost and snow; hair, to protect them from wind and cold. They eat grass and drink water, and fling up their heels over the champaign. Such is the real nature of horses. Palatial dwellings are of no use to them. One day Poh Loh A Chinese Rarey, of somewhat legendary character. appeared, saying, "I understand the management of horses." So he branded them, and clipped them, and pared their hoofs, and put halters on them, tying them up by the head and shackling them by the feet, and disposing them in stables, with the result that two or three in every ten died. Then he kept them hungry and thirsty, trotting them and galloping them, and grooming, and trimming, with the misery of the tasselled bridle before and the fear of the knotted whip behind, until more than half of them were dead. The potter says, "I can do what I will with clay. If I want it round, I use compasses; if rectangular, a square." The carpenter says, "I can do what I will with wood. If I want it curved, I use an arc; if straight, a line."

But on what grounds can we think that the natures of clay and wood desire this application of compasses and square, of arc and line? Nevertheless, every age extols Poh Loh for his skill in managing horses, and potters and carpenters for their skill with clay and wood. Those who govern the empire make the same mistake. Now I regard government of the empire from quite a different point of view. The people have certain natural instincts; - to weave and clothe themselves, to till and feed themselves. These are common to all humanity, and all are agreed thereon. Such instincts are called "Heaven-sent."

And so in the days when natural instincts prevailed, men moved quietly and gazed steadily. At that time, there were no roads over mountains, nor boats, nor bridges over water. All things were produced, each for its own proper sphere. Birds and beasts multiplied; trees and shrubs grew up. The former might be led by the hand; you could climb up and peep into the raven's nest. For then man dwelt with birds and beasts, and all creation was one. There were no distinctions of good and bad men. Being all equally without knowledge, their virtue could not go astray. Being all equally without evil desires, they were in a state of natural integrity, the perfection of human existence. But when Sages appeared, tripping people over charity and fettering with duty to one's neighbour, doubt found its way into the world. And then with their gushing over music and fussing over ceremony, the empire became divided against itself. Music and ceremonies are important factors in the Confucian system of government.

Were the natural integrity of things left unharmed, who could make sacrificial vessels? Were white jade left unbroken, who could make the regalia of courts? Were Tao not abandoned, who could introduce charity and duty to one's neighbour? Were man's natural instincts his guide, what need would there be for music and ceremonies? Were the five colours not confused, who would practise decoration? Were the five notes not confused, who would adopt the six pitch-pipes? See chs. viii and x. Destruction of the natural integrity of things, in order to produce articles of various kinds, - this is the fault of the artisan. Annihilation of TAO in order to practise charity and duty to one's neighbour, - this is the error of the Sage. Horses live on dry land, eat grass and drink water. When pleased, they rub their necks together. When angry, they turn around and kick up their heels at each other. Thus far only do their natural dispositions carry them. But bridled and bitted, with a plate of metal on their foreheads, they learn to cast vicious looks, to turn the head to bite, to resist, to get the bit out of the mouth or the bridle into it. And thus their natures become depraved, - the fault of Poh Loh. In the days of Ho Hsü A legendary ruler of old.

the people did nothing in particular when at rest, and went nowhere in particular when they moved. Having food, they rejoiced; having full bellies, they strolled about. Such were the capacities of the people. But when the Sages came to worry them with ceremonies and music in order to rectify the form of government, and dangled charity and duty to one's neighbour before them in order to satisfy their hearts, - then the people began to develop a taste for knowledge and to struggle one with the other in their desire for gain. This was the error of the Sages. The simplicity of style, and general intelligibility of this chapter have raised doubts as to its genuineness. But as Lin Hsi Chung justly observes, its sympathetic tone in relation to dumb animals, stamps it, in spite of an undue proportion of word to thought, as beyond reach of the forger's art.

OPENING TRUNKS. Argument: - All restrictions artificial, and therefore deceptive - Only by shaking off such fetters, and reverting to the natural, can man hope to attain. The precautions taken against thieves who open trunks, search bags, or ransack tills, consist of securing with cords and fastening with bolts and locks. This is what the world calls wit. But a strong thief comes who carries off the till on his shoulders, with box and bag to boot. And his only fear is that the cords and locks should not be strong enough! Therefore, what the world calls wit, simply amounts to assistance given to the strong thief. And I venture to state that nothing of that which the world calls wit, is otherwise than serviceable to strong thieves; and that nothing of that which the world calls wisdom is other than a protection to strong thieves. How can this be shown? - In the State of Ch'i a man used to be able to see from one town to the next, and hear the barking and crowing of its dogs and cocks. So near were they. This sentence has been incorporated in ch. LXXX of the Tao-Tê-Ching. See The Remains of Lao Tzŭ, p. 50.

The area covered by the nets of fishermen and fowlers, and pricked by the plough, was a square of two thousand and odd li. Of which three go to a mile, roughly. This statement is intended to convey an idea of prosperity. And within its four boundaries not a temple or shrine was dedicated, nor a district or hamlet governed, but in accordance with the rules laid down by the Sages. Yet one morning B.C. 481. T'ien Ch'êng Tzŭ slew the Prince of Ch'i, and stole his kingdom. And not his kingdom only, but the wisdom-tricks which he had got from the Sages as well; so that although T'ien Ch'êng Tzŭ acquired the reputation of a thief, he lived as comfortably as ever did either Yao or Shun. The small States did not venture to blame, nor the great States to punish him; and so for twelve generations his descendants ruled over Ch'i. Commentators have failed to explain away this last sentence. On the strength of an obvious anachronism, some have written off the whole chapter as a forgery; but the general style of argument is against this view. Was not this stealing the State of Ch'i and the wisdom-tricks of the Sages as well in order to secure himself from the consequences of such theft?

This amounts to what I have already said, namely that nothing of what the world esteems great wit is otherwise than serviceable to strong thieves, and that nothing of what the world calls great wisdom is other than a protection to strong thieves. Let us take another example. Of old, Lung Fêng was beheaded, Pi Kan was disembowelled, Chang Hung was sliced to death, Tzŭ Hsü was chopped to mince-meat. The first two have been already mentioned in ch. iv. Chang Hung was minister to Prince Ling of the Chou dynasty. Tzŭ Hsü was a name of the famous Wu Yüan, prime minister of the Ch'u State, whose corpse is said to have been sewn up in a sack and thrown into the river near Soochow. All these four were Sages, but their wisdom could not preserve them from death. In fact, it rather hastened their ends. An apprentice to Robber Chê asked him saying, "Is there then TAO in thieving?"

"Pray tell me of something in which there is not TAO," Chê replied. "There is the wisdom by which booty is located. The courage to go in first, and the heroism of coming out last. There is the shrewdness of calculating success, and justice in the equal division of the spoil. There has never yet been, a great robber who was not possessed of these five." Thus the doctrine of the Sages is equally indispensable to good men and to Chê. But good men are scarce and bad men plentiful, so that the good the Sages do to the world is little and the evil great. Therefore it has been said, "If the lips are gone, the teeth will be cold." It was the thinness of the wine of Lu which caused the siege of Han Tan.

Plain English · paraphrase"Tell me about something that does not have the TAO," Chê replied. "There is the *wisdom* to find treasure. The *courage* to go in first, and the *heroism* of being the last to leave. There is the *shrewdness* of calculating success, and *justice* in dividing the spoils equally. There has never been a great robber who did not have these five." Thus, the teachings of the Sages are just as necessary for good men as they are for Chê. But good men are few and bad men many, so the good the Sages do for the world is small, and the harm is great. Therefore it has been said, "If the lips are gone, the teeth will be cold." It was the poor quality of the wine of Lu that led to the siege of Han Tan.

The prince of Ch'u held an assembly, to which the princes of Lu and Chao brought presents of wine. That of Lu was poor stuff, while the wine of Chao was rich and generous. Because, however, the Master of the Cellar to the prince of Ch'u failed to get a bribe of wine from the prince of Chao, he maliciously changed the presents; and the prince of Ch'u, displeased at what he regarded as an insult, shortly after laid siege to Han Tan, the chief city of Chao. It was the appearance of Sages which caused the appearance of great robbers. Drive out the Sages and leave the robbers alone, - then only will the empire be governed. As when the stream ceases the gully dries up, and when the hill is levelled the chasm is filled; so when Sages are extinct, there will be no more robbers, but the empire will rest in peace. On the other hand, unless Sages disappear, neither will great robbers disappear; nor if you double the number of Sages wherewithal to govern the empire will you do more than double the profits of Robber Chê. If pecks and bushels are used for measurement, they will also be stolen. There will simply be something more to steal.

Plain English · paraphraseThe prince of Ch'u held a meeting, and the princes of Lu and Chao brought wine as gifts. The wine from Lu was poor, but the wine from Chao was rich and generous. However, the Master of the Cellar to the prince of Ch'u did not receive a bribe of wine from the prince of Chao. Because of this, he acted maliciously and switched the gifts. The prince of Ch'u, thinking this was an insult, soon afterwards laid siege to Han Tan, the main city of Chao. It is the appearance of Sages that causes the appearance of great robbers. Drive out the Sages and leave the robbers alone, and only then will the empire be governed. Just as when the stream stops the gully dries up, and when the hill is leveled the chasm is filled; so when Sages are gone, there will be no more robbers, and the empire will be at peace. On the other hand, unless Sages disappear, great robbers will not disappear either. And if you double the number of Sages to govern the empire, you will only double the profits of Robber Chê. If pecks and bushels are used for measurement, they will also be stolen. There will simply be more to steal.

If scales and steelyards are used for weighing, they will also be stolen. If tallies and signets are used for good faith, they will also be stolen. If charity and duty to one's neighbour are used for rectification, they will also be stolen. How is this so? - One man steals a purse, and is punished. Another steals a State, and becomes a Prince. But charity and duty to one's neighbour are integral parts of princedom. Does he not then steal charity and duty to one's neighbour together with the wisdom of the Sages? So it is that to attempt to drive out great robbers Who steal States. is simply to help them to steal principalities, charity, duty to one's neighbour, together with measures, scales, tallies, and signets. No reward of official regalia and uniform will dissuade, nor dread of sharp instruments of punishment will deter such men from their course. These do but double the profits of robbers like Chê, and make it impossible to get rid of them, - for which the Sages are responsible. Therefore it has been said, "Fishes cannot be taken away from water: the instruments of government cannot be delegated to others." These words were uttered by Lao Tzŭ. So say Han Fei Tzŭ and Huai Nan Tzŭ. They have been incorporated in ch. xxxvi of the Tao-Tê-Ching.

In the wisdom of Sages the instruments of government are found. This wisdom is not fit for enlightening the world. Away then with wisdom and knowledge, and great robbers will disappear! Discard jade and destroy pearls, and petty thieves will cease to exist. Burn tallies and break signets, and the people will revert to their natural integrity. Split measures and smash scales, and the people will not fight over quantities. Utterly abolish all the restrictions of Sages, and the people will begin to be fit for the reception of TAO. Confuse the six pitch-pipes, break up organs and flutes, stuff up the ears of Shih K'uang, - and each man will keep his own sense of hearing to himself. Put an end to decoration, disperse the five categories of colour, glue up the eyes of Li Chu, - and each man will keep his own sense of sight to himself. Destroy arcs and lines, fling away square and compasses, snap off the fingers of Kung Ch'ui, - A famous artisan who could draw an exact circle with his unaided hand. and each man will use his own natural skill. Wherefore the saying, "Great skill is as clumsiness." Extremes meet. These words are attributed to Lao Tzŭ by Huai Nan Tzŭ, and are incorporated in ch. xlv of the Tao-Tê-Ching.

Restrain the actions of Tsêng and Shih, stop the mouths of Yang and Mih, get rid of charity and duty to one's neighbour, - and the virtue of the people will become one with God. If each man keeps to himself his own sense of sight, the world will escape confusion. If each man keeps to himself his own sense of hearing, the world will escape entanglements. If each man keeps his knowledge to himself, the world will escape doubt. If each man keeps his own virtue to himself, the world will avoid deviation from the true path. Tsêng, Shih, Yang, Mih, Shih K'uang, Kung Ch'ui, and Li Chu, all set up their virtue outside themselves and involve the world in such angry discussions that nothing definite is accomplished. Have you never heard of the Golden Age, - This question must be addressed to the reader. the days of Yung Ch'êng, Ta T'ing, Poh Huang, Chung Yang, Li Lu, Li Hsü, Hsien Yüan, Hê Hsü, Tsun Lu, Chu Yung, Fu Hsi, and Shên Nung? Ancient rulers, several of whom have already been mentioned. Then the people used knotted cords. As a means of intercommunication. The details of the system have not, however, come down to us.

They were contented with what food and raiment they could get. They lived simple and peaceful lives. Neighbouring districts were within sight, and the cocks and dogs of one could be heard in the other, yet the people grew old and died without ever interchanging visits. In those days, government was indeed perfect. But nowadays any one can excite the people by saying, "In such and such a place there is a Sage." Immediately they put together a few provisions and hurry off, neglecting their parents at home and their master's business abroad, filing in unbroken line through territories of Princes, with a string of carts and carriages a thousand li in length. Such is the evil effect of an exaggerated desire for knowledge among our rulers. And if rulers aim at knowledge and neglect TAO, the empire will be overwhelmed in confusion.

Plain English · paraphraseThey were content with the food and clothing they could get. They lived simple and peaceful lives. Nearby areas were visible, and the roosters and dogs of one could be heard in the other, yet the people grew old and died without ever visiting each other. In those days, government was truly perfect. But nowadays, anyone can stir up the people by saying, "In such and such a place there is a Sage." Immediately they gather a few supplies and rush off, leaving their parents at home and their duties abroad, streaming in an unbroken line through the territories of Princes, with a line of carts and carriages stretching a thousand _li_. This is the bad result of rulers having too great a desire for knowledge. And if rulers focus on knowledge and neglect TAO, the empire will fall into chaos.

How can it be shown that this is so? - Bows and cross-bows and hand-nets and harpoon-arrows, involve much knowledge in their use; but they carry confusion among the birds of the air. Hooks and bait and nets and traps, involve much knowledge in their use; but they carry confusion among the fishes of the deep. Fences and nets and snares, involve much knowledge in their use; but they carry confusion among the beasts of the field. In the same way the sophistical fallacies of the hard and white and the like and the unlike of schoolmen involve much knowledge of argument; but they overwhelm the world in doubt. Therefore it is that whenever there is great confusion, love of knowledge is ever at the bottom of it. For all men strive to grasp what they do not know, while none strive to grasp what they already know; and all strive to discredit what they do not excel in, while none strive to discredit what they do excel in. The result is overwhelming confusion.

Plain English · paraphraseHow can this be shown? Bows, crossbows, hand-nets, and harpoon-arrows require much knowledge to use; but they bring confusion to the birds in the sky. Hooks, bait, nets, and traps require much knowledge to use; but they bring confusion to the fish in the deep. Fences, nets, and snares require much knowledge to use; but they bring confusion to the beasts of the field. In the same way, the sophistical fallacies of the hard and the soft, the like and the unlike, used by schoolmen, involve much knowledge of argument; but they overwhelm the world with doubt. Therefore, whenever there is great confusion, the love of knowledge is always at the root of it. For all men try to grasp what they do not know, while none try to grasp what they already know. And all try to discredit what they do not excel in, while none try to discredit what they do excel in. The result is overwhelming confusion.

Thus, above, the splendour of the heavenly bodies is dimmed; below, the energy of land and water is disturbed; while midway the influence of the four seasons is destroyed. There is not one tiny creature which moves on earth or flies in air but becomes other than by nature it should be. So overwhelming is the confusion which desire for knowledge has brought upon the world ever since the time of the Three Dynasties downwards! The simple and the guileless have been set aside; the specious and the false have been exalted. Tranquil inaction has given place to a love of disputation; and by disputation has confusion come upon the world.

Plain English · paraphraseThus, above, the brightness of the heavenly bodies is dimmed; below, the energy of land and water is disturbed; and in the middle, the influence of the four seasons is destroyed. There is not one small creature that moves on earth or flies in the air that does not become something other than it should be by nature. So overwhelming is the confusion that the desire for knowledge has brought upon the world ever since the time of the Three Dynasties downwards! The simple and the sincere have been set aside; the showy and the false have been raised up. Tranquil inaction has given way to a love of argument; and through argument has come confusion to the world.

ON LETTING ALONE. Argument: - The natural conditions of our existence require no artificial aids - The evils of government - Failure of coercion - TAO the refuge - Inaction the secret - The action of Inaction - Illustrations. There has been such a thing as letting mankind alone; there has never been such a thing as governing mankind. With success. Letting alone springs from fear lest men's natural dispositions be perverted and their virtue laid aside. But if their natural dispositions be not perverted nor their virtue laid aside, what room is there left for government? Of old, when Yao governed the empire, he caused happiness to prevail to excess in man's nature; and consequently the people were not satisfied. When Chieh See p. 40. governed the empire he caused sorrow to prevail to excess in man's nature; and consequently the people were not contented. Dissatisfaction and discontent are subversive of virtue; and without virtue there is no such thing for an empire as stability. Virtue, here in its ordinary sense. When man rejoices greatly he gravitates towards the positive pole. When he sorrows deeply he gravitates towards the negative pole. These "poles" are the male and female principles already alluded to on p. 82. Originally developed from the Great Monad, they became the progenitors of all creation. If the equilibrium of positive and negative In nature.

is disturbed, the four seasons are interrupted, the balance of heat and cold is destroyed, and man himself suffers physically thereby. Because men are made to rejoice and to sorrow and to displace their centre of gravity, they lose their steadiness, and are unsuccessful in thought and action. And thus it is that the idea of surpassing others first came into the world, followed by the appearance of such men as Robber Chê, Tsêng, and Shih, the result being that the whole world could not furnish enough rewards for the good nor distribute punishments enough for the evil among mankind. And as this great world is not equal to the demand for rewards and punishments; and as, ever since the time of the Three Dynasties The legendary emperors Fu Hsi, Shên Nung, and Huang Ti, or the Yellow Emperor, already mentioned. downwards, men have done nothing but struggle over rewards and punishments, - what possible leisure can they have had for adapting themselves to the natural conditions of their existence? Besides, over-refinement of vision leads to debauchery in colour; over-refinement of hearing leads to debauchery in sound; over-refinement of charity leads to confusion in virtue; Here again the manifestation of TAO. See p. 45. over-refinement of duty towards one's neighbour leads to perversion of principle;

The eternal principles which are of TAO and not of man. over-refinement of ceremonial leads to divergence from the true object; over-refinement of music leads to lewdness of thought; over-refinement of wisdom leads to an extension of mechanical art; and over-refinement of shrewdness leads to an extension of vice. As shown in the preceding chapter. If people adapt themselves to the natural conditions of existence, the above eight Vision, hearing, charity, duty to one's neighbour, ceremonial, music, wisdom, and shrewdness. may be or may not be; it matters not. But if people do not adapt themselves to the natural conditions of existence, then these eight become hindrances and spoilers, and throw the world into confusion. In spite of this, the world reverences and cherishes them, thereby greatly increasing the sum of human error. And not as a passing fashion, but with admonitions in words, with humility in prostrations, and with the stimulus of music and song. What then is left for me? Therefore, for the perfect man who is unavoidably summoned to power over his fellows, there is naught like Inaction. It is not according to the spirit of TAO that a man should shirk his mortal responsibilities. On the contrary, TAO teaches him how to meet them.

By means of inaction he will be able to adapt himself to the natural conditions of existence. And so it is that he who respects the State as his own body is fit to support it, and he who loves the State as his own body, is fit to govern it. This last sentence is attributed by Huai Nan Tzŭ to Lao Tzŭ, and has been incorporated in the Tao-Tê-Ching, ch. xiii. It is curious that Chuang Tzŭ should say nothing about its authorship, and perhaps even more curious that Kuo Hsiang, his editor and commentator of the fourth century A.D., should say nothing either about the claims of Lao Tzŭ or the Tao-Tê-Ching. And if I can refrain from injuring my internal economy, and from taxing my powers of sight and hearing, sitting like a corpse while my dragon-power is manifested around, in profound silence while my thunder-voice resounds, the powers of heaven responding to every phase of my will, as under the yielding influence of inaction all things are brought to maturity and thrive, - what leisure then have I to set about governing the world? Some of this passage is repeated in ch. xiv. Ts'ui Chü A casual personage.

asked Lao Tzŭ, saying, "If the empire is not to be governed, how are men's hearts to be kept in order?" "Be careful," replied Lao Tzŭ, "not to interfere with the natural goodness of the heart of man. Man's heart may be forced down or stirred up. In each case the issue is fatal. "By gentleness, the hardest heart may be softened. But try to cut and polish it, - 'twill glow like fire or freeze like ice. In the twinkling of an eye it will pass beyond the limits of the Four Seas. In repose, profoundly still; in motion, far away in the sky. No bolt can bar, no bond can bind, - such is the human heart." "Of old, the Yellow Emperor first caused charity and duty to one's neighbour to interfere with the natural goodness of the heart of man. In consequence of which, Yao and Shun wore the hair off their legs in endeavouring to feed their people. They disturbed their internal economy in order to find room for charity and duty to one's neighbour. They exhausted their energies in framing laws and statutes. Still they did not succeed. "Thereupon, Yao confined Huan Tou on Mount Tsung; drove the chief of San-miao and his people into San-wei, and kept them there; and banished the Minister of Works to Yu Island.

These words are quoted (with variants) from the Shu Ching or Canon of History. They refer to individuals who had misconducted themselves in carrying out the new régime. But they were not equal to their task, and through the times of the Three Princes The Great Yü, T'ang, and Wên Wang, founder of the Chou dynasty. the empire was in a state of great unrest. Among the bad men were Chieh and Chê; among the good were Tsêng and Shih. By and by, the Confucianists and the Mihists arose; and then came exultation and anger of rivals, fraud between the simple and the cunning, recrimination between the virtuous and the evil, slander between the honest and the dishonest, - until decadence set in, men fell away from their original virtue, their natures became corrupt, and there was a general rush for knowledge. "The next thing was to coerce by all kinds of physical torture, thus bringing utter confusion into the empire, the blame for which rests upon those who would interfere with the natural goodness of the heart of man.

"In consequence, virtuous men sought refuge in mountain caves, while rulers of States sat trembling in their ancestral halls. Then, when dead men lay about pillowed on each others' corpses, when cangued prisoners and condemned criminals jostled each other in crowds, - then the Confucianists and the Mihists, in the midst of gyves and fetters, stood forth to preach! Salvation from the ills of which they and their systems had been the cause. Alas, they know not shame, nor what it is to blush! "Until I can say that the wisdom of Sages is not a fastener of cangues, and that charity and duty to one's neighbour are not bolts for gyves, how should I know that Tsêng and Shih are not the forerunners Lit. "sounding arrows," used by bandits as a signal for beginning the attack. of Chieh and Chê? The meaning intended is that good cannot exist without its correlative evil. "Therefore I said, 'Abandon wisdom and discard knowledge, and the empire will be at peace.'" These words have been incorporated in ch. xix of the Tao-Tê-Ching. The present rendering somewhat modifies the view I expressed on p. 16 of The Remains of Lao Tzŭ. The Yellow Emperor sat on the throne for nineteen years, and his laws obtained all over the empire. Hearing that Kuang Ch'êng Tzŭ

Said by some commentators to be another name for Lao Tzŭ, but if so, then it must have been Lao Tzŭ as he existed, an incarnation of TAO, before his appearance in the Confucian age. was living on Mount K'ung-t'ung, he went thither to see him, and said, "I am told, Sir, that you are in possession of perfect TAO. May I ask in what perfect TAO consists? I desire to avail myself of the good influence of heaven and earth in order to secure harvests and feed my people. I should also like to control the Two Powers of nature The Yin and the Yang. See pp. 82, 120. in order to the protection of all living things. How can I accomplish this?" "What you desire to avail yourself of," replied Kuang Ch'êng Tzŭ, "is the primordial integrity of matter. What you wish to control are the disintegrators thereof. Ever since the empire has been governed by you, the clouds have rained without waiting to thicken, the foliage of trees has fallen without waiting to grow yellow, the brightness of the sun and moon has paled, and the voice of the flatterer is heard on every side. How then speak of perfect TAO?"

The Yellow Emperor withdrew. He resigned the Throne. He built himself a solitary hut. He lay upon straw. For three months he remained in seclusion, and then went again to see Kuang Ch'êng Tzŭ. The latter was lying down with his face to the south. The Yellow Emperor approached after the manner of an inferior, upon his knees. Prostrating himself upon the ground he said, "I am told, Sir, that you are in possession of perfect TAO. May I ask how my self may be preserved so as to last?" Kuang Ch'êng Tzŭ jumped up with a start. "A good question indeed!" cried he. "Come, and I will speak to you of perfect TAO. "The essence of perfect TAO is profoundly mysterious; its extent is lost in obscurity. "See nothing; hear nothing; let your soul be wrapped in quiet; and your body will begin to take proper form. Let there be absolute repose and absolute purity; do not weary your body nor disturb your vitality, - and you will live for ever. For if the eye sees nothing, and the ear hears nothing, and the mind Lit. the heart. thinks nothing, the soul will preserve the body, and the body will live for ever. Not in the grosser worldly sense, but as a sublimated unit in eternity.

"Cherish that which is within you, and shut off that which is without; for much knowledge is a curse. Then I will place you upon that abode of Great Light which is the source of the positive Power, and escort you through the gate of Profound Mystery which is the source of the negative Power. These Powers are the controllers of heaven and earth, and each contains the other. Knowledge thereof is knowledge of the great mystery of human existence. "Cherish and preserve your own self, In accordance with the above. and all the rest will prosper of itself. The welfare of the people, the success of their harvests, etc. I preserve the original ONE, while resting in harmony with externals. It is because I have thus cared for my self now for twelve hundred years that my body has not decayed." The Yellow Emperor prostrated himself and said, "Kuang Ch'êng Tzŭ is surely God...." Whereupon the latter continued, "Come, I will tell you. That self is eternal; yet all men think it mortal. That self is infinite; yet all men think it finite. Those who possess TAO are princes in this life and rulers in the hereafter. Those who do not possess TAO, behold the light of day in this life and become clods of earth in the hereafter.

"Nowadays, all living things spring from the dust and to the dust return. But I will lead you through the portals of Eternity into the domain of Infinity. My light is the light of sun and moon. My life is the life of heaven and earth. I know not who comes nor who goes. Men may all die, but I endure for ever." "A mighty drama, enacted on the theatre of Infinitude, with suns for lamps, and Eternity as a background; whose author is God, and whose purport and thousandfold moral lead us up to the 'dark with excess of light' of the throne of God." - Carlyle. The Spirit of the Clouds when passing eastwards through the expanse of Air The term here used has also been explained to mean some supernatural kind of tree, over which we may imagine the Cloud-Spirit to be passing. happened to fall in with the Vital Principle. The latter was slapping his ribs and hopping about; whereupon the Spirit of the Clouds said, "Who are you, old man, and what are you doing here?" "Strolling!" replied the Vital Principle, without stopping. Activities ceaseless in their imperceptible operation. "I want to know something," continued the Spirit of the Clouds. "Ah!" uttered the Vital Principle, in a tone of disapprobation.

"The relationship of heaven and earth is out of harmony," said the Spirit of the Clouds; "the six influences do not combine, The positive and negative principles, wind, rain, darkness, and light. and the four seasons are no longer regular. I desire to blend the six influences so as to nourish all living beings. What am I to do?" "I do not know!" cried the Vital Principle, shaking his head, while still slapping his ribs and hopping about; "I do not know!" So the Spirit of the Clouds did not press his question; but three years later, when passing eastwards through the Yu-sung territory, he again fell in with the Vital Principle. The former was overjoyed, and hurrying up, said, "Has your Holiness forgotten me?" He then prostrated himself, and desired to be allowed to interrogate the Vital Principle; but the latter said, "I wander on without knowing what I want. I roam about without knowing where I am going. I stroll in this ecstatic manner, simply awaiting events. What should I know?" "I too roam about," answered the Spirit of the Clouds; "but the people depend upon my movements. I am thus unavoidably summoned to power; and under these circumstances I would gladly receive some advice."

"That the scheme of empire is in confusion," said the Vital Principle, "that the conditions of life are violated, that the will of God does not triumph, that the beasts of the field are disorganised, that the birds of the air cry at night, that blight reaches the trees and herbs, that destruction spreads among creeping things, - this, alas! is the fault of government." "True," replied the Spirit of the Clouds, "but what am I to do?" "It is here," cried the Vital Principle, "that the poison lurks! Go back!" To the root, to that natural state in which by inaction all things are accomplished. "It is not often," urged the Spirit of the Clouds, "that I meet with your Holiness. I would gladly receive some advice." "Feed then your people," said the Vital Principle, "with your heart. By the influence of your own perfection. Rest in inaction, and the world will be good of itself. Cast your slough. Spit forth intelligence. Ignore all differences. Become one with the infinite. Release your mind. Free your soul. Be vacuous. Be Nothing!

"Let all things revert to their original constitution. If they do this, without knowledge, the result will be a simple purity which they will never lose; but knowledge will bring with it a divergence therefrom. Seek not the names nor the relations of things, and all things will flourish of themselves." "Knowledge is the knowing that we cannot know." Emerson. "Your Holiness," said the Spirit of the Clouds, as he prostrated himself and took leave, "has informed me with power and filled me with mysteries. What I had long sought, I have now found." The men of this world all rejoice in others being like themselves, and object to others not being like themselves. "The man, and still more the woman, who can be accused either of doing 'what nobody does,' or of not doing 'what everybody does,' is the subject of as much depreciatory remark as if he or she had committed some grave moral delinquency." Mill's Essay on Liberty, ch. iii. Those who make friends with their likes and do not make friends with their unlikes, are influenced by a desire to differentiate themselves from others. But those who are thus influenced by a desire to differentiate themselves from others, - how will they find it possible to do so?

As all have similar ambitions, they will only be on the same footing as the rest. To subordinate oneself to the majority in order to gratify personal ambition, is not so good as to let that majority look each one after his own affairs. Those who desire to govern kingdoms, clutch at the advantages of the Three Princes without seeing the troubles involved. In fact, they trust to luck. But in thus trusting to luck not to destroy the kingdom, their chances of preserving it do not amount to one in ten thousand, while their chances of destroying it are ten thousand to nothing and even more. Such, alas! is the ignorance of rulers. The above somewhat unsatisfactory paragraph condemns those who strive to distinguish themselves from, and set themselves up as governors of, their fellow-men.

For, given territory, there is the great thing - Man. Given man, he must not be managed as if he were a mere thing; though by not managing him at all he may actually be managed as if he were a mere thing. And for those who understand that the management of man as if he were a mere thing is not the way to manage him, the issue is not confined to mere government of the empire. Such men may wander at will between the six limits of space or travel over the continent of earth, unrestrained in coming and in going. This is to be distinguished from one's fellows, and this distinction is the highest attainable by man. The doctrine of the perfect man is to him as shadow to form, as echo to sound. Ask and it responds, fulfilling its mission as the help-mate of humanity. Noiseless in repose, objectless in motion, it guides you to the goal, free to come and free to go for ever without end. Alone in its exits and its entrances, it rivals the eternity of the sun.

As for his body, that is in accordance with the usual standard. Being in accordance with the usual standard it is not distinguished in any way. But if not distinguished in any way, what becomes of the distinction by which he is distinguished? Those who see what is to be seen, - of such were the perfect men of old. Those who see what is not to be seen, - they are the chosen of the universe. Spiritual sight carries them beyond the horizon where natural vision stops short. Low in the scale, but still to be allowed for, - matter. Humble, but still to be followed, - Rather than guided. mankind. Of others, but still to be attended to, - affairs. Harsh, but still necessary to be set forth, - the law. Far off, but still claiming our presence, - duty to one's neighbour. Near, but still claiming extension, - charity. Of sparing use, but still to be of bounteous store, - ceremony. Of middle course, but still to be of lofty scope, - virtue. One, but not to be without modification, - TAO. Spiritual, yet not to be devoid of action, - GOD. In inaction there is action.

Therefore the true Sage looks up to God, but does not offer to aid. He perfects his virtue, but does not involve himself. He guides himself by Tao, but makes no plans. He identifies himself with charity, but does not rely on it. He extends to duty towards his neighbour, but does not store it up. He responds to ceremony, without tabooing it. Although really recognising only the ceremony of the heart which requires no outward sign. He undertakes affairs without declining them. He metes out law without confusion. He relies on his fellow-men and does not make light of them. He accommodates himself to matter and does not ignore it. Thus the action of the Sage is after all inaction. While there should be no action, there should be also no inaction. Of a positive, premeditated character. He who is not divinely enlightened will not be sublimely pure. He who has not clear apprehension of TAO will find this beyond his reach. And he who is not enlightened by TAO, - alas indeed for him!

What then is TAO? - There is the TAO of God, and the TAO of man. Inaction and compliance make the TAO of God: action and entanglement the TAO of man. The TAO of God is fundamental: the TAO of man is accidental. The distance which separates them is great. Let us all take heed thereto!

THE UNIVERSE. Argument: - The prëeminence of TAO - All things informed thereby - The true Sage illumined thereby - His attributes - His perfection - Man's senses his bane - Illustrations. Vast as is the universe, its phenomena are regular. Countless though its contents, the laws which govern these are uniform. Many though its inhabitants, that which dominates them is sovereignty. Sovereignty begins in virtue and ends in God. Therefore it is called divine. The term here used has been elsewhere rendered "infinite." Of old, the empire was under the sovereignty of inaction. There was the virtue of God, - nothing more. Meaning, of course, TAO. In other words, all things existed under their own natural conditions. Words being in accordance with TAO, the sovereignty of the empire was correct. Delimitations being in accordance with TAO, the duties of prince and subject were clear. Abilities being in accordance with TAO, the officials of the empire governed. The point of view being always in accordance with TAO, all things responded thereto. Under the reign of inaction, the natural prevailed over the artificial. (1) The sovereign could utter no cruel mandate. (2) Sovereign and subject each played his allotted part. (3) The right men were in the right place. (4) All things were as they were, and not as man would have them.

Thus, virtue was the connecting link between God and man, while TAO spread throughout all creation. Men were controlled by outward circumstances, applying their in-born skill to the development of civilised life. This skill was bound up with the circumstances of life, and these with duty, and duty with virtue, and virtue with TAO, and TAO with God. Therefore it has been said, "As for those who nourished the empire of old, having no desires for themselves, the empire was not in want. They did nothing, and all things proceeded on their course. They preserved a dignified repose, and the people rested in peace." We are not told who said these words. They are not in the Tao-Tê-Ching; and yet if Lao Tzŭ did not utter them, it is difficult to say who did. The Record says, "By converging to ONE, all things may be accomplished. By the virtue which is without intention, even the supernatural may be subdued." How much more man? Kuo Hsiang says the Record was the name of a work ascribed to Lao Tzŭ. The Master said, "TAO covers and supports all things," - so vast is its extent. Each man should prepare his heart accordingly. This "Master" has been identified with both Chuang Tzŭ and Lao Tzŭ.

"To act by means of inaction is God. To speak by means of inaction is Virtue. To love men and care for things is Charity. To recognise the unlike as the like is breadth of view. To make no distinctions is liberal. To possess variety is wealth. And so, to hold fast to virtue is strength. To complete virtue is establishment. To follow TAO is to be prepared. And not to run counter to the natural bias of things is to be perfect. "He who fully realises these ten points, by storing them within enlarges his heart, and with this enlargement brings all creation to himself. Such a man will bury gold on the hillside and cast pearls into the sea. He will not struggle for wealth, nor strive for fame. He will not rejoice at old age, nor grieve over early death. He will find no pleasure in success, no chagrin in failure. He will not account a throne as his own private gain, nor the empire of the world as glory personal to himself. His glory is to know that all things are ONE, and that life and death are but phases of the same existence!"

"Let man learn that he is here, not to work, but to be worked upon; and that, though abyss open under abyss, and opinion displace opinion, all are at last contained in the Eternal Cause." Emerson. The Master said, "How profound in its repose, how infinite in its purity, is TAO! "If metal and stone were without TAO, they would not be capable of emitting sound. And just as they possess the property of sound but will not emit sound unless struck, so surely is the same principle applicable to all creation. Meaning that all creation is responsive to proper influences, in accordance with TAO, if we only knew where to seek them. "The man of complete virtue remains blankly passive as regards what goes on around him. He is as originally by nature, and his knowledge extends to the supernatural. Thus, his virtue expands his heart, which goes forth to all who come to take refuge therein. His heart does not initiate the movement, but simply responds to an influence brought to bear. "Without TAO, form cannot be endued with life. Without virtue, life cannot be endued with intelligence. To preserve one's form, live out one's life, establish one's virtue, and realise TAO, - is not this complete virtue?

"Issuing forth spontaneously, moving without premeditation, all things following in his wake, - such is the man of complete virtue! "He can see where all is dark. He can hear where all is still. In the darkness he alone can see light. In the stillness he alone can detect harmony. He can sink to the lowest depths of materialism. To the highest heights of spirituality he can soar. This because he stands in due relation to all things. Though a mere abstraction, he can minister to their wants, and ever and anon receive them into rest, - the great, the small, the long, the short, for ever without end." He is, as it were, a law of compensation to all things. The Yellow Emperor travelled to the north of the Red Lake and ascended the K'un-lun Mountains. Returning south he lost his magic pearl. His spiritual part, his soul. He employed Intelligence to find it, but without success. He employed Sight to find it, but without success. He employed Speech Also explained as "Strength." to find it, but without success. Finally, he employed Nothing, and Nothing got it. He did not employ Nothing to find it. He only employed Nothing. "Strange indeed," quoth the Emperor, "that Nothing should have been able to get it!"

Knowledge, sight, and speech, tend to obscure rather than illuminate the spiritual nature of man. Only in a state of negation can true spirituality be found. Yao's tutor was Hsü Yu. The latter's tutor was Yeh Ch'üeh, and Yeh Ch'üeh's tutor was Wang I, whose tutor was Pei I. Yao enquired of Hsü Yu, saying, "Would Yeh Ch'üeh do to be emperor? I am going to get Wang I to ask him." "Alas!" cried Hsü Yu, "that would be bad indeed for the empire. Yeh Ch'üeh is a clever and capable man. He is by nature better than most men, but he seeks by means of the human to reach the divine. He strives to do no wrong; but he is ignorant of the source from which wrong springs. Emperor forsooth! He avails himself of the artificial and neglects the natural. He lacks unity in himself. He worships intelligence and is always in a state of ferment. He is a slave to circumstances and to things. Wherever he looks, his surroundings respond. He himself responds to his surroundings. He is not yet an abstraction, informed by TAO.

He is always undergoing modifications and is wanting in fixity. How should such a one be fit for emperor? Still every clan has its elder. He may be leader of a clan, but not a leader of leaders. A captain who has been successful in suppressing rebellion, as minister is a bane, as sovereign, a thief." Yao went to visit Hua. The border-warden of Hua said "Ha! a Sage. My best respects to you, Sir. I wish you a long life." "Don't!" replied Yao. "I wish you plenty of money," continued the border-warden. "Don't!" replied Yao. "And many sons," added he. "Don't!" replied Yao. "Long life, plenty of money, and many sons," cried the warden, "these are what all men desire. How is it you alone do not want them?" "Many sons," answered Yao, "are many anxieties. Plenty of money means plenty of trouble. Long life involves much that is not pleasant to put up with. These three gifts do not advance virtue; therefore I declined them." "At first I took you for a Sage," said the warden, "but now I find you are a mere man. God, in sending man into the world, gives to each his proper function. If you have many sons and give to each his proper function, what cause have you for anxiety?

"And similarly, if you have wealth and allow others to share it, what troubles will you have?" "The true Sage dwells like the quail At random. and feeds like a fledgeling. Which is dependent on its parents. He travels like the bird, leaving no trace behind. If there be TAO in the empire, he and all things are in harmony. If there be not TAO, he cultivates virtue in retirement. After a thousand years of this weary world, he mounts aloft, and riding upon the white clouds passes into the kingdom of God, whither the three evils do not reach, and where he rests secure in eternity. What is there to put up with in that?" Thereupon the border-warden went off, and Yao followed him; saying, "May I ask - ," to which the warden only replied "Begone!" The style of the above episode varies enough from Chuang Tzŭ's standard to make its authorship doubtful. When Yao was Emperor, Poh Ch'êng Tzŭ Kao Lao Tzŭ under a previous incarnation. See the Kuang Ch'êng Tzŭ of p. 125. was one of his vassals. But when Yao handed over the empire to Shun, and Shun to the Great Yü, Poh Ch'êng Tzŭ Kao resigned his fief and betook himself to agriculture.

The Great Yü going to visit him, found him working in the fields; whereupon he approached humbly, saying, "When Yao was emperor, you, Sir, were a vassal; but when Yao handed over the empire to Shun, and Shun to me, you resigned your fief and betook yourself to agriculture. May I enquire the reason of this?" "When Yao ruled the empire," said Tzŭ Kao, "the people exerted themselves without reward and behaved themselves without punishment. But now you reward and punish them, and yet they are not good. From this point virtue will decline, the reign of force will begin, and the troubles of after ages will date their rise. Away with you! Do not interrupt my work." And he quietly went on ploughing as before. The above episode is unmistakably spurious. At the beginning of the beginning, even Nothing did not exist. Then came the period of the Nameless. "The Nameless," says the Tao-Tê-Ching, ch. i, "was the beginning of heaven and earth." See also ch. ii, ante. When ONE came into existence, there was ONE, but it was formless. When things got that by which they came into existence, it was called their virtue. Sc. that, by virtue of which they are what they are. See p. 45. That which was formless, but divided, I.e. allotted.

Plain English · paraphraseThe Great Yü went to visit him and found him working in the fields. He approached respectfully and said, "When Yao was emperor, you, Sir, were a vassal. But when Yao passed the empire to Shun, and Shun to me, you gave up your fief and went to farming. May I ask why?" "When Yao ruled the empire," said Tzŭ Kao, "the people worked hard without reward and behaved well without punishment. But now you reward and punish them, and yet they are not good. From this point, virtue will decline, the reign of force will begin, and the troubles of future ages will start. Go away! Do not interrupt my work." And he quietly continued plowing as before. The above episode is clearly fake. At the very beginning, even Nothing did not exist. Then came the time of the Nameless. "The Nameless," says the *Tao-Tê-Ching*, chapter i, "was the beginning of heaven and earth." See also chapter ii, above. When ONE came into existence, there was ONE, but it was formless. When things got that by which they came into existence, it was called their *virtue*. That is, the thing by virtue of which they are what they are. See p. 45. That which was formless, but divided, meaning, allotted.

though without interstice, Unbroken in continuity. was called destiny. Then came the movement which gave life, and things produced in accordance with the principles of life had what is called form. When form encloses the spiritual part, each with its own characteristics, that is its nature. By cultivating this nature, we are carried back to virtue; and if this is perfected, we become as all things were in the beginning. We become unconditioned, and the unconditioned is great. As birds join their beaks in chirping, Unconsciously. and beaks to chirp must be joined, - to be thus joined with the universe without being more conscious of it than an idiot, this is divine virtue, this is accordance with the eternal fitness of things. Confucius asked Lao Tzŭ, saying, "There are persons who cultivate TAO according to fixed rules of possible and impossible, fit and unfit, just as the schoolmen speak of separating hardness from whiteness as though these could be hung up on different pegs. See p. 22. Could such persons be termed sages?" "That," replied Lao Tzŭ, "is but the skill of the handicraftsman, wearing out body and soul alike. The powers of the hunting-dog involve it in trouble; It is kept by man instead of being free. the cleverness of the monkey brings it down from the mountain.

Into the hands of man. Ch'iu, what I mean you cannot understand, neither can you put it into words. Ch'iu was the personal name of Confucius. It is never uttered by the Confucianist, the term "a certain one" being usually substituted. Neither is it ever written down, except with the omission of some stroke, by which its form is changed. Those who have a head and feet, but no mind nor ears, are many. Those who have a body without a body or appearance of one, and yet there they are, - are none. Movement and rest, life and death, rise and fall, are not at the beck and call of man. Cultivation of self is in his own hands. To be unconscious of objective existences and of God, this is to be unconscious of one's own personality. And he who is unconscious of his own personality, combines in himself the human and the divine." Chiang Lü Mien went to see Chi Ch'ê, Two obscure personages.

and said, "The Prince of Lu begged me to instruct him, but I declined. However, he would take no refusal, so I was obliged to do so. I don't know if I was correct in my doctrine or not. Please note what I said. I told him to be decorous and thrifty; to advance the public-spirited and loyal, and to have no partialities. Then, I said, no one would venture to oppose him." Chi Ch'ê sniggered and said, "Your remarks on the virtues of Princes may be compared with the mantis stretching out its feelers and trying to stop a carriage, - not likely to effect the object proposed. See ch. iv, where the same figure is used. Besides, he would be placing himself in the position of a man who builds a lofty tower and makes a display of his valuables where all his neighbours will come and gaze at them." Attracting people by means not in accordance with TAO. "Alas! I fear I am but a fool," replied Chiang Lü Mien. "Nevertheless, I should be glad to be instructed by you in the proper course to pursue."

"The government of the perfect Sage," explained Chi Ch'ê, "consists in influencing the hearts of the people so as to cause them to complete their education, to reform their manners, to subdue the rebel mind, and to exert themselves one and all for the common good. This influence operates in accordance with the natural disposition of the people, who are thus unconscious of its operation. He who can so act has no need to humble himself before the teachings of Yao and Shun. He makes the desires of the people coincident with virtue, and their hearts rest therein." When Tzŭ Kung See ch. vi. went south to the Ch'u State on his way back to the Chin State, he passed through Han-yin. There he saw an old man engaged in making a ditch to connect his vegetable garden with a well. He had a pitcher in his hand, with which he was bringing up water and pouring it into the ditch, - great labour with very little result. "If you had a machine here," cried Tzŭ Kung, "in a day you could irrigate a hundred times your present area. The labour required is trifling as compared with the work done. Would you not like to have one?" "What is it?" asked the gardener.

"It is a contrivance made of wood," replied Tzŭ Kung, "heavy behind and light in front. It draws up water as you do with your hands, but in a constantly overflowing stream. It is called a well-sweep." Still used all over China. Thereupon the gardener flushed up and said, "I have heard from my teacher that those who have cunning implements are cunning in their dealings, and that those who are cunning in their dealings have cunning in their hearts, and that those who have cunning in their hearts cannot be pure and incorrupt, and that those who are not pure and incorrupt are restless in spirit, and that those who are restless in spirit are not fit vehicles for TAO. It is not that I do not know of these things. I should be ashamed to use them." At this Tzŭ Kung was much abashed, and said nothing. Then the gardener asked him who he was, to which Tzŭ Kung replied that he was a disciple of Confucius.

Plain English · paraphrase"It is a device made of wood," replied Tzŭ Kung, "heavier at the back and lighter at the front. It draws up water like you do with your hands, but in a constant, flowing stream. It is called a well-sweep." Still used all over China. Thereupon the gardener flushed up and said, "I have heard from my teacher that those who have clever tools are clever in their dealings, and that those who are clever in their dealings are clever in their hearts, and that those who are clever in their hearts cannot be pure and honest, and that those who are not pure and honest are restless in spirit, and that those who are restless in spirit are not fit for TAO. It is not that I do not know about these things. I would be ashamed to use them." At this Tzŭ Kung was much embarrassed, and said nothing. Then the gardener asked him who he was, to which Tzŭ Kung replied that he was a student of Confucius.

"Are you not one who extends his learning with a view to being a Sage; who talks big in order to put himself above the rest of mankind; who plays in a key to which no one can sing so as to spread his reputation abroad? Rather become unconscious of self and shake off the trammels of the flesh, - and you will be near. But if you cannot govern your own self, what leisure have you for governing the empire? Begone! Do not interrupt my work." Tzŭ Kung changed colour and slunk away, being not at all pleased with this rebuff; and it was not before he had travelled some thirty li that he recovered his usual appearance. "What did the man we met do," asked a disciple, "that you should change colour and not recover for such a long time?" "I used to think there was only one man in all the world," replied Tzŭ Kung. Meaning Confucius. "I did not know that there was also this man. I have heard the Master say that the test of a scheme is its practicability, and that success must be certain. The minimum of effort with the maximum of success, - such is the way of the Sage.

The absurdity of attributing such doctrines to Confucius will be apparent to every student of the Sage's remains. "Not so this manner of man. Aiming at TAO, he perfects his virtue. By perfecting his virtue he perfects his body, and by perfecting his body he perfects his spiritual part. And the perfection of the spiritual part is the TAO of the Sage. Coming into life he is as one of the people, knowing not whither he is bound. How complete is his purity? Success, profit, skill, - these have no place in his heart. Such a man, if he does not will it, he does not stir; if he does not wish it, he does not act. If all the world praises him, he does not heed. If all the world blames him, he does not repine. Reminding us of the philosopher Yung of ch. i. The praise and the blame of the world neither advantage him nor otherwise. He may be called a man of perfect virtue. As for me, I am but a mere creature of impulse."

So he went back to Lu to tell Confucius. But Confucius said, "That fellow pretends to a knowledge of the science of the ante-mundane. He knows something, but not much. His government is of the internal, not of the external. What is there wonderful in a man by clearness of intelligence becoming pure, by inaction reverting to his original integrity, and with his nature and his spiritual part wrapped up in a body, passing through this common world of ours? Besides, to you and to me the science of the ante-mundane is not worth knowing." It is only the present which concerns man. This last is an utterance which might well have fallen from the lips of Confucius. But the whole episode is clearly an interpolation of later times. As Chun Mang was starting eastwards to the ocean, he fell in with Yüan Fêng on the shore of the eastern sea. These names are probably allegorical, but it is difficult to say in exactly what sense. "Whither bound?" cried the latter. "I am going to the ocean," replied Chun Mang. "What are you going to do there?" asked Yüan Fêng. "The ocean," said Chun Mang, "is a thing you cannot fill by pouring in, nor empty by taking out. I am simply on a trip."

You cannot do anything to the infinite. "But surely you have intentions with regard to the straight-browed people?... Come, tell me how the Sage governs." The straight-browed, lit. horizontal-eyed, people, are said by one commentator to have been "savages." "Oh, the government of the Sage," answered Chun Mang. "The officials confine themselves to their functions. Ability is secure of employment. The voice of the people is heard, and action is taken accordingly. Men's words and deeds are their own affairs, and so the empire is at peace. A beck or a call, and the people flock together from all sides. This is how the Sage governs." "Tell me about the man of perfect virtue," said Yüan Fêng. "The man of perfect virtue," replied Chun Mang, "in repose has no thoughts, in action no anxiety. He recognises no right, nor wrong, nor good, nor bad. Within the Four Seas, when all profit - that is his pleasure; when all share - that is his repose. Men cling to him as children who have lost their mothers; they rally round him as wayfarers who have missed their road. He has wealth and to spare, but he knows not whence it comes. He has food and drink more than sufficient, but knows not who provides it. Such is a man of virtue."

"And now," said Yüan Fêng, "tell me about the divine man." "The divine man," replied Chun Mang, "rides upon the glory of the sky where his form can no longer be discerned. This is called absorption into light. He fulfils his destiny. He acts in accordance with his nature. He is at one with God and man. For him all affairs cease to exist, and all things revert to their original state. This is called envelopment in darkness." Mên Wu Kuei and Ch'ih Chang Man Chi were looking at Wu Wang's troops. The famous founder of the Chou dynasty, B.C. 1169-1116. "He is not equal to the Great Yü," said the latter; and consequently "we are involved in all these troubles." "May I ask," replied Mên Wu Kuei, "if the empire was under proper government when the Great Yü began to govern it, or had he first to quell disorder and then to proceed to government?" "If the empire had all been under proper government," said the other, "what would there have been for the Great Yü to do? He was as ointment to a sore. Only bald men use wigs; only sick people want doctors. And the Sage blushes when a filial son, with anxious look, administers medicine to cure his loving father.

Because to need drugs, the father must first have been sick; and this, from a Chinese point of view, is clearly the fault of the son. "In the Golden Age, good men were not appreciated; ability was not conspicuous. Rulers were mere beacons, while the people were free as the wild deer. They were upright without being conscious of duty to their neighbours. They loved one another without being conscious of charity. They were true without being conscious of loyalty. They were honest without being conscious of good faith. They acted freely in all things without recognising obligations to any one. Thus, their deeds left no trace; their affairs were not handed down to posterity. Rousseau, in Du Contrat Social, thus describes society as it would be if every man was a true Christian: - "Chacun remplirait son devoir; le peuple serait soumis aux lois, les chefs seraient justes et modérés, les magistrats intègres, incorruptibles, les soldats mépriseraient la mort, il n'y aurait ni vanité ni luxe."

Plain English · paraphraseBecause someone needs drugs, the father must first have been sick; and from a Chinese point of view, this is clearly the son's fault. "In the Golden Age, good men were not appreciated; ability was not obvious. Rulers were just beacons, while the people were as free as wild deer. They were upright without being aware of duty to their neighbors. They loved each other without being aware of charity. They were true without being aware of loyalty. They were honest without being aware of good faith. They acted freely in all things without recognizing any obligations. So, their deeds left no trace; their affairs were not passed down to future generations. Rousseau, in *Du Contrat Social*, describes society like this if every man were a true Christian: 'Each would fulfill his duty; the people would obey the laws, the leaders would be just and moderate, the officials honest and incorruptible, the soldiers would despise death, there would be no vanity or luxury.'"

"A filial son does not humour his parents. A loyal minister does not flatter his prince. This is the acme of filial piety and loyalty. To assent to whatever a parent or a prince says, and to praise whatever a parent or a prince does, this is what the world calls unfilial and disloyal conduct, though apparently unaware that the principle is of universal application. For though a man assents to whatever the world says, and praises whatever the world does, he is not dubbed a toady; from which one might infer that the world is severer than a father and more to be respected than a prince!

Plain English · paraphraseA good child does not please his parents. A true minister does not flatter his ruler. This is the highest form of respect for parents and loyalty to a ruler. To agree with everything a parent or ruler says, and to praise everything a parent or ruler does, this is what the world calls disrespectful and disloyal, even though it does not realize this rule applies everywhere. For if a man agrees with everything the world says, and praises everything the world does, he is not called a sycophant. From this one might think the world is stricter than a father and more worthy of respect than a prince!

"If you tell a man he is a wheedler, he will not like it. If you tell him he is a flatterer, he will be angry. Yet he is everlastingly both. But all such sham and pretence is what the world likes, and consequently people do not punish each other for doing what they do themselves. For a man to arrange his dress, or make a display, or suit his expression so as to get into the good graces of the world, and yet not to call himself a flatterer; to identify himself in every way with the yeas and nays of his fellows, and yet not call himself one of them; - this is the height of folly. "A man who knows that he is a fool is not a great fool. A man who knows his error is not greatly in error. Great error can never be shaken off; a great fool never becomes clear-headed. If three men are travelling and one man makes a mistake, they may still arrive at their destination, error being in the minority. But if two of them make a mistake, then they will not succeed, error being in the majority. And now, as all the world is in error, I, though I know the true path, am alas! unable to guide.

"Grand music does not appeal to vulgar ears. Give them the Chê-yang or the Huang-hua, The "Not for Joseph" and "Sally Come Up" of ancient China. and they will roar with laughter. And likewise great truths do not take hold of the hearts of the masses. And great truths not finding utterance, common-places carry the day. Two earthen instruments will drown the sound of one metal one; and the result will not be melodious. "And now, as all the world is in error, I, though I know the true path, - how shall I guide? If I know that I cannot succeed and yet try to force success, this would be but another source of error. Better, then, to desist and strive no more. But if I strive not, who will? "An ugly man who has a son born to him in the middle of the night will hurry up with a light, in dread lest the child should be like himself.

"An old tree is cut down to make sacrificial vessels, which are then ornamented with colour. The stump remains in a ditch. The sacrificial vessels and the stump in the ditch are very differently treated as regards honour and dishonour; equally, as far as destruction of the woods original nature is concerned. Similarly, the acts of Robber Chê and of Tsêng and Shih are very different; but the loss of original nature is in each case the same. "The causes of this loss are five in number; viz. - The five colours confuse the eye, and the eyes fail to see clearly. The five sounds confuse the ear, and the ear fails to hear accurately. The five scents confuse the nose, and obstruct the sense of smell. The five tastes cloy the palate, and vitiate the sense of taste. Finally, likes and dislikes cloud the understanding, and cause dispersion of the original nature. "These five are the banes of life; yet Yang and Mih regarded them as the summum bonum. As attainment of TAO. For Yang Chu and Mih Tzu, see chs. ii and viii.

They are not my summum bonum. For if men who are thus fettered can be said to have attained the summum bonum, then pigeons and owls in a cage may also be said to have attained the summum bonum! "Besides, to stuff one's inside with likes and dislikes and sounds and colours; to encompass one's outside with fur caps, feather hats, the carrying of tablets, or girding of sashes - full of rubbish inside while swathed in magnificence without - and still to talk of having attained the summum bonum; - then the prisoner with arms tied behind him and fingers in the squeezer, the tiger or the leopard which has just been put in a cage, may justly consider that they too have attained the summum bonum!" "L'homme," says Rousseau (op. cit.), "est né libre, et partout il est dans les fers." This chapter, as it stands, is clearly not from the hand of Chuang Tzŭ. One critic justly points out the want of logical sequence in arrangement of argument and illustrations. Another, while admitting general refinement of style, calls attention to a superficiality of thought noticeable in certain portions. "Yet only those," he adds, "who eat and sleep with their Chuang Tzŭs would be able to detect this."

THE TAO OF GOD. Argument: - TAO is repose - Repose the secret of the universe - Cultivation of essentials - Neglect of accidentals - The sequence of TAO - Spontaneity of true virtue - TAO is unconditioned - TAO cannot be conveyed - Illustrations. The TAO of GOD operates ceaselessly; and all things are produced. The TAO of the sovereign operates ceaselessly; and the empire rallies around him. The TAO of the Sage operates ceaselessly; and all within the limit of surrounding ocean acknowledge his sway. He who apprehends God, who is in relation with the Sage, and who recognises the radiating virtue of the sovereign, - his actions will be to him unconscious, the actions of repose. With him all will be inaction, by which all things will be accomplished. The repose of the Sage is not what the world calls repose. His repose is the result of his mental attitude. All creation could not disturb his equilibrium: hence his repose. When water is still, it is like a mirror, reflecting the beard and the eyebrows. It gives the accuracy of the water-level, and the philosopher makes it his model. And if water thus derives lucidity from stillness, how much more the faculties of the mind? The mind of the Sage being in repose becomes the mirror of the universe, the speculum of all creation.

Repose, tranquillity, stillness, inaction, - these were the levels of the universe, the ultimate perfection of TAO. In the early days of Time, ere matter had assumed shape, it was by such levels that the spiritual was adjusted. Therefore wise rulers and Sages rest therein. Resting therein they reach the unconditioned, from which springs the conditioned; and with the conditioned comes order. Meaning those laws which are inseparable from concrete existences. Again, from the unconditioned comes repose, and from repose comes movement, When once inner repose has been established, outer movement results as a matter of necessity, without injury to the organism. and from movement comes attainment. Further, from repose comes inaction, and from inaction comes potentiality of action. When inaction has been achieved, action results spontaneously and unconsciously to the organism. And inaction is happiness; and where there is happiness no cares can abide, and life is long.

Repose, tranquillity, stillness, inaction, - these were the source of all things. Due perception of this was the secret of Yao's success as a ruler, and of Shun's success as his minister. Due perception of this constitutes the virtue of sovereigns on the throne, the TAO of the inspired Sage and of the uncrowned King below. Keep to this in retirement, and the lettered denizens of sea and dale will recognise your power. Keep to this when coming forward to pacify a troubled world, and your merit shall be great and your name illustrious, and the empire united into one. In your repose you will be wise; in your movements, powerful. By inaction you will gain honour; and by confining yourself to the pure and simple, you will hinder the whole world from struggling with you for show. To fully apprehend the scheme of the universe, Lit.: "the virtue of heaven and earth," meaning their inaction by which all things are brought to maturity. this is called the great secret of being in accord with GOD, whereby the empire is so administered that the result is accord with man. To be in accord with man is human happiness; to be in accord with God is the happiness of God.

Chuang Tzŭ said, "O my exemplar! Thou who destroyest all things, and dost not account it cruelty; thou who benefitest all time, and dost not account it charity; thou who art older than antiquity and dost not account it age; thou who supportest the universe, shaping the many forms therein, and dost not account it skill; - this is the happiness of God!" Therefore it has been said, "Those who enjoy the happiness of God, when born into the world, are but fulfilling their divine functions; when they die, they do but undergo a physical change. In repose, they exert the influence of the Negative; in motion, they wield the power of the Positive." See ante, chs. vi and xi. Thus, those who enjoy the happiness of God have no grievance against God, no grudge against man. Nothing material injures them; nothing spiritual punishes them. Accordingly it has been said, "Their motion is that of heaven; One of ceaseless revolution, without beginning or end.

their repose is that of earth. Mental equilibrium gives them the empire of the world. Evil spirits do not harass them without; demons do not trouble them within. Mental equilibrium gives them sovereignty over all creation." Which signifies that in repose to extend to the whole universe and to be in relation with all creation, - this is the happiness of God. This enables the mind of the Sage to cherish the whole empire. For the virtue of the wise ruler is modelled upon the universe, is guided by TAO, and is ever occupied in inaction. By inaction, he administers the empire, and has energy to spare; but by action he finds his energy inadequate to the administration of the empire. Therefore the men of old set great store by inaction. But if rulers practise inaction and the ruled also practise inaction, the ruled will equal the rulers, and will not be as their subjects. On the other hand, if the ruled practise action and rulers also practise action, rulers will assimilate themselves to the ruled, and will not be as their masters. Rulers must practise inaction in order to administer the empire. The ruled must practise action in order to subserve the interests of the empire. This is an unchangeable law.

And one over which the commentators have exhausted not a little wit. At the end of the chapter, the reader will be able to draw his own conclusions. Thus, the men of old, although their knowledge did not extend throughout the universe, were not troubled in mind. Although their intellectual powers beautified all creation, they did not rejoice. Although their abilities exhausted all things within the limits of ocean, they did not act. Heaven has no parturitions, yet all things are evolved. Earth knows no increment, yet all things are nourished. The wise ruler practises inaction, and the empire applauds him. Therefore it has been said, "There is nothing more mysterious In its action. than heaven, nothing richer than earth, nothing greater than the wise ruler." Wherefore also it has been said, "The virtue of the wise ruler makes him the peer of heaven and earth." Charioted upon the universe, with all creation for his team, he passes along the highway of mortality. The essential is in the ruler; the accidental in the ruled. Lit. the "root," and the "tip" of the branch, respectively. The ultima ratio lies with the prince; representation is the duty of the minister.

Appeal to arms is the lowest form of virtue. Rewards and punishments are the lowest form of education. Ceremonies and laws are the lowest form of government. Music and fine clothes are the lowest form of happiness. Weeping and mourning are the lowest form of grief. These five should follow the movements of the mind. The ancients indeed cultivated the study of accidentals, but they did not allow it to precede that of essentials. The prince precedes, the minister follows. The father precedes, the son follows. The elder brother precedes, the younger follows. Seniors precede, juniors follow. Men precede, women follow. Husbands precede, wives follow. Distinctions of rank and precedence are part of the scheme of the universe, and the Sage adopts them accordingly. In point of spirituality, heaven is honourable, earth is lowly. Spring and summer precede autumn and winter: such is the order of the seasons. In the constant production of all things, there are phases of existence. There are the extremes of maturity and decay, the perpetual tide of change. And if heaven and earth, divinest of all, admit of rank and precedence, how much more man?

In the ancestral temple, parents rank before all; at court, the most honourable; in the village, the elders; in matters to be accomplished, the most trustworthy. Such is the order which appertains to TAO. He who in considering TAO disregards this order, thereby disregards TAO; and he who in considering TAO disregards TAO, - whence will he secure TAO?

Therefore, those of old who apprehended TAO, first apprehended God. TAO came next, and then charity and duty to one's neighbour, and then the functions of public life, and then forms and names, and then employment according to capacity, and then distinctions of good and bad, and then discrimination between right and wrong, and then rewards and punishments. Thus wise men and fools met with their dues; the exalted and the humble occupied their proper places. And the virtuous and the worthless being each guided by their own natural instincts, it was necessary to distinguish capabilities, and to adopt a corresponding nomenclature, in order to serve the ruler, nourish the ruled, administer things generally, and elevate self. Where knowledge and plans are of no avail, one must fall back upon the natural. This is perfect peace, the acme of good government. Therefore it has been written, "Wherever there is form, there is also its name." Forms and names indeed the ancients had, but did not give precedence to them. Thus, those of old who considered TAO, passed through five phases before forms and names were reached, and nine before rewards and punishments could be discussed. As given in the preceding paragraph.

To rise per saltum to forms and names is to be ignorant of their source; to rise per saltum to rewards and punishments is to be ignorant of their beginning. Those who invert the process of discussing TAO, arguing in a directly contrary sense, are rather to be governed by others than able to govern others themselves. To rise per saltum to forms and names and rewards and punishments, this is to understand the instrumental part of government, but not to understand the great principle of government. Which is TAO. This is to be of use in the administration of the empire, but not to be able to administer the empire. This is to be a sciolist, a man of narrow views. Ceremonies and laws were indeed cultivated by the ancients; but they were employed in the service of the rulers by the ruled. Rulers did not employ them as a means of nourishing the ruled. From the beginning of this chapter, the argument has been eminently unsatisfactory. Of old, Shun asked Yao, saying, "How does your Majesty employ your faculties?" "I am not arrogant towards the defenceless," replied Yao. "I do not neglect the poor. I grieve for those who die. I pity the orphan. I sympathise with the widow. Beyond this, nothing."

Plain English · paraphraseTo jump directly to forms and names is to not know their source; to jump directly to rewards and punishments is to not know their beginning. Those who reverse the process of discussing TAO, arguing in the opposite way, are better to be governed by others than to govern others themselves. To jump directly to forms and names and rewards and punishments is to understand the tools of government, but not to understand the great principle of government. That is TAO. This is to be useful in managing the empire, but not to be able to manage the empire. This is to be a superficial person, someone with narrow views. Ceremonies and laws were indeed developed by the ancients; but they were used by the ruled in serving the rulers. Rulers did not use them as a way to care for the ruled. From the start of this chapter, the argument has been clearly unsatisfying. Long ago, Shun asked Yao, saying, "How does Your Majesty use your abilities?" "I do not act arrogantly toward the helpless," replied Yao. "I do not ignore the poor. I mourn those who die. I pity the orphan. I feel for the widow. Beyond this, nothing."

"Good indeed!" cried Shun, "but yet not great." "How so?" inquired Yao. "Be passive," said Shun, "like the virtue of God. The sun and moon shine; the four seasons revolve; day and night alternate; clouds come and rain falls." "Alas!" cried Yao, "what a muddle I have been making. You are in accord with God; I am in accord with man." Of old, heaven and earth were considered great; and the Yellow Emperor and Yao and Shun all thought them perfection. Consequently, what did those do who ruled the empire of old? They did what heaven and earth do; no more. When Confucius was going west to place his works in the Imperial library of the House of Chou, Tzŭ Lu The most popular of all the disciples of Confucius. In the striking words of Mr. Watters, "He was equally ready to argue, fight, be silent, pray for his master, and die with him. So it is very unfair in Dr. Legge to call him a kind of Peter, meaning of course Simon Peter, a man who lacked faith, courage, and fidelity, and who moreover cursed and swore." - Guide to the Tablets in a Confucian Temple. counselled him, saying, "I have heard that a certain librarian of the Chêng department, by name Lao Tan,

Or, as usually named in this work, Lao Tzŭ. "Chêng" appears to have been merely a distinctive name. has resigned and retired into private life. Now as you, Sir, wish to deposit your works, it would be advisable to go and interview him." "Certainly," said Confucius; and he thereupon went to see Lao Tzŭ. The latter would not hear of the proposal; so Confucius began to expound the doctrines of his twelve canons, in order to convince Lao Tzŭ. These twelve have been variously enumerated as (1) the Book of Changes, Parts i and ii, with the ten Wings. (2) The twelve Dukes of the Spring and Autumn, etc. "This is all nonsense," cried Lao Tzŭ, interrupting him. "Tell me what are your criteria." "Charity," replied Confucius, "and duty towards one's neighbour." "Tell me, please," asked Lao Tzŭ, "are these part of man's original nature?" The question of an innate moral sense early occupied the attention of Chinese thinkers. "They are," answered Confucius. "Without charity, the superior man could not become what he is. Without duty to one's neighbour, he would be of no effect. These two belong to the original nature of a pure man. What further would you have?" "Tell me," said Lao Tzŭ, "in what consist charity and duty to one's neighbour?"

"They consist," answered Confucius, "in a capacity for rejoicing in all things; in universal love, without the element of self. These are the characteristics of charity and duty to one's neighbour." "What stuff!" cried Lao Tzŭ. "Does not universal love contradict itself? If every one loves every one, there can be no such thing as love, just as absolute altruism only achieves the same result as absolute egoism. Is not your elimination of self a positive manifestation of self? On the "Don't nail his ear to the pump" principle. Sir, if you would cause the empire not to lose its source of nourishment, - there is the universe, its regularity is unceasing; there are the sun and moon, their brightness is unceasing; there are the stars, their groupings never change; there are birds and beasts, they flock together without varying; there are trees and shrubs, they grow upwards without exception, Be like these; follow TAO; and you will be perfect. Why then these vain struggles after charity and duty to one's neighbour, as though beating a drum in search of a fugitive. Alas! Sir, you have brought much confusion into the mind of man." The drum similitude occurs again in ch. xiv. Shih Ch'êng Ch'i Of whom nothing is known.

visited Lao Tzŭ, and addressed him, saying, "Having heard, Sir, that you were a Sage, I put aside all thought of distance to come and visit you. Travelling many stages, the soles of my feet thickened, but I did not venture to rest. And now I see you are not a Sage. While rats feasted off your leavings, you turned your sister out of doors. This is not charity. Though you have no lack of food, raw and cooked, you are stingy beyond all bounds." At this Lao Tzŭ was silent and made no reply; and the next day Shih Ch'êng Ch'i came again and said, "Before, I was rude to you; now, I am sorry. How is this?" "I have no pretension," replied Lao Tzŭ, "to be possessed of cunning knowledge nor of divine wisdom. Had you yesterday called me an ox, I should have considered myself an ox. Had you called me a horse, I should have considered myself a horse. "For if men class you in accordance with truth, and you reject the classification, you only double the reproach. My humility is natural humility. It is not humility for humility's sake." Shih Ch'êng Ch'i moved respectfully away.

Plain English · paraphraseHe visited Lao Tzu and addressed him, saying, "I heard you were a sage, so I put aside all thought of distance to come and see you. I traveled many stages, my feet thickened from the journey, but I did not rest. And now I see you are not a sage. While rats feasted on your leftovers, you turned your sister out of doors. This is not charity. Though you have plenty of food, raw and cooked, you are stingy beyond all bounds." At this, Lao Tzu was silent and made no reply. The next day, Shih Ch'eng Chi came again and said, "Before, I was rude to you; now, I am sorry. How is this?" "I have no pretension," replied Lao Tzu, "to be possessed of cunning knowledge or divine wisdom. Had you called me an ox yesterday, I would have considered myself an ox. Had you called me a horse, I would have considered myself a horse. For if men classify you according to truth, and you reject the classification, you only double the reproach. My humility is natural humility. It is not humility for humility's sake." Shih Ch'eng Chi moved respectfully away.

Without allowing his shadow to fall on Lao Tzŭ. Bringing one foot up to the other only. Not venturing to let it pass as in ordinary walking. Then he advanced again, also respectfully, and said, "May I ask you about personal cultivation?" Lao Tzŭ said, "Your countenance is a strange one. Your eyes protrude. Your jaws are heavy. Your lips are parted. Your demeanour is self-satisfied. You look like a man on a tethered horse. His body there, his mind elsewhere. You are too confident. You are too hasty. You think too much of your own powers. Such men are not trusted. Those who are found on the wrong side of a boundary line are called thieves." Lao Tzŭ said, "TAO is not too small for the greatest, nor too great for the smallest. Thus all things are embosomed therein; wide indeed its boundless capacity, unfathomable its depth.

Plain English · paraphraseHe did not let his shadow fall on Lao Tzu. He lifted one foot to the other only. He did not let it pass as in ordinary walking. Then he moved forward again, respectfully, and said, "May I ask you about personal cultivation?" Lao Tzu said, "Your face is strange. Your eyes stick out. Your jaws are heavy. Your lips are parted. Your manner is self-satisfied. You look like a man on a tethered horse. His body is there, but his mind is elsewhere. You are too confident. You are too hasty. You think too much of your own powers. Such men are not trusted. Those who are found on the wrong side of a boundary line are called thieves." Lao Tzu said, "The Way is not too small for the greatest, nor too great for the smallest. Thus all things are held within it; wide indeed is its boundless capacity, unfathomable its depth."